The Movie Flicka - 838 Words

Flicka Flicka is a heart wrenching movie about the love of family, nature, and horses. This movie shows you the summer of a ranchers daughter. Katy McLauglin (Alison Lohman) is the teenage daughter of a horse rancher who is looking to hand over the reins of the family business. While her family is on the ranch, Katy is studing at a private school feeling like her own kind of misfit. One day, while out riding, Katy finds a beautiful black mustang and instantly feels an emotional connection with the wild horse. Katy begs her father, Rob McLaughlin (Tim McGraw), to let her keep the animal but he is convinced that the mustang would be bad for both his thoroughbred horses and his daughter. But Katy is certain she can break the†¦show more content†¦With night coming and a serious storm, Katy and Flicka are in trouble. After finally getting onto some of their land Katy feels safe. Just as she was about to ride herself and Ficka the rest of the way home they are attacked by a mountain lion. Flicka is able to scare away the cat but sustains major injuries in the process. Once found Katy is brought home but has fallen sick. While Katy fights for her life, Flicka fights for hers. Then Rob decides that it isnt fair for an animal to suffer. Then Katy speaks the most heartbreaking line in the story saying its ok daddy, you can kill us. The next morning Katys temperature has broken and Flicka is safe and healing. The two found each other at the moment of need and have beaten all the odds. This beautiful movie distributed by 20th Century Fox, shows viewers what it takes for a woman to fight for her right and what she

Should Abortion Be Outlawed - 1474 Words

Should Abortion be Outlawed? There are not many issues that are as divisive as abortion. From arguments over women’s rights, freedom of choice, or health to an unborn human’s rights, freedom to live, or just his general well-being, there are few issues that divide people as much and are debated as much as the abortion issue. However, the undisputed fact is that since Roe v. Wade went into effect, over 60 million unborn babies have been killed. Many in the medical field have shifted their opinions on this matter and as more people conclude that unborn humans are one hundred percent human, the debate changes from a scientific standpoint morality versus convenience standpoint. Abortion must be outlawed because it could compromise the†¦show more content†¦It is important to remember that abortion and the Holocaust have more in common that most people know. Margaret Sanger, the founder of Planned Parenthood, was heavily involved in the American eugenics movement of the early 20th century, which heavily influenced the Nazi eugenics movement. One of the most disturbing facets of The Holocaust was the clinical, or scientific way in which the Nazis portrayed it. For example, they used â€Å"cleaning operations† and â€Å"pacification operations† to refer to the mass killing of Eastern European Jews.Likewise, atrocities such as the gassing of Jewish prisoners was simply referred to as â€Å"the procedure†. In the exact same way, abortion clinics often refer to any methods of abortion in this manner. Sticking a needle into an unborn baby diagnosed with Down’s Syndrome in order to end his life has been accepted practice for a long time now. In a medical journal which described the this act, the writer did not mention â€Å"kill† once; however, he mentioned â€Å"procedure† fourteen times in the description. (Brenner 125) Furthermore, just as the Nazis conducted experiments on Jews, experiments are conducted on unborn or unwanted babies. The Nazis regularly tested new drugs and vaccines on Jewish prisoners in order to determine their usefulness. In the present-day, many different drug experiments are conducted upon unborn babies before they are aborted. According to author William Brennan, just as â€Å"wanted GermanShow MoreRelatedAbortion, The, And Abortion Essay1656 Words   |  7 Pages An abortion is when the pregnancy of a women is ended; it is called sometimes Termination of pregnancy. There are two types of abortion. The first type is the spontaneous abortion; it occurs within the first two months. What causes it is frequently unknown yet is probably the results of intra-uterine contamination, or limited attachment in the building unborn child to the interior coating walls in the womb (uterus). Such conditions this unborn child, if the idea advances further, mayRead MoreThe Case Of Roe V. Wade972 Words   |  4 PagesThe definition of abortion is the deliberate termination of a human pregnancy, most often performed during the first 28 weeks of pregnancy. Inasmuch as it is true, in our society abortion is an extremely controversial subject, however, it is also safe to say that it is a very opinionated matter between those who do and do not believe in it. Abortion has been legal in the United States since the case of Roe v. Wade in the winter of 1973 lab eling it as a â€Å"fundamental right†, it has since been a moralRead MoreEssay Methods and Laws for Abortion are Constantly Changing785 Words   |  4 PagesAbortion The methods and laws of abortion are always changing. Different countries have different laws about what conditions are needed for it to be legal. There are many methods of abortion that have been used in the past. Some are still used today and some have been outlawed. Abortion is very controversial when it comes to human rights. Legalities of abortion are constantly changing all around the world. Abortion law divides everyone into five categories. The first category includesRead MoreAbortion Should Not Be Legal1274 Words   |  6 PagesMr. Cartusciello 12 March 2017 Abortion has been a hotly debated topic for years now. Abortion-rights advocates won a major victory in June when the Supreme Court struck down a Texas law requiring doctors to obtain permission to practice at hospitals near their offices and to have abortion clinics adhere to hospital building codes (guttmacher.org). A landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court upon the issue of abortion was Roe v. The right of an abortion is to only the individual and notRead MoreThe Physical Risk Of Abortions1379 Words   |  6 PagesThe Physical Risk of Abortions Abortions are the termination of a child based on the idea that the women who should be caring for the child will not be able to support the child, the child was the outcome of an unplanned pregnancy, the women is unfit to carry the child, or to even prevent from having a child with birth defects. Abortion has been the hot topic for debates around the world because of various views on ethics being greatly between the women s right to choose being it her body versusRead MoreAbortion Is The Moral Killing Of A Human Being1712 Words   |  7 Pageshave different aspects towards abortion. Some may argue that abortion should be outlawed and treated like the murder of a human being while others believe abortion should remain a legal choice to all women. The ones who are for abortion have argued that women have a moral right to decide what to do with their own bodies. On the other hand, the ones against abortion like myself have argued that the fetus is a human being from the moment of con ception. Therefore, abortion is the moral killing of an innocentRead MoreAbortion: An Issue that Should Be Revised in the United States561 Words   |  3 PagesStates of America grants its people a right that is now being challenged by a portion of the country. Abortion is an issue that has divided the country in two. Pro-life supporters demand for the criminalization of abortions while pro-choice supporters advocate for womens continuation of their rights. I believe that the government should not play a role in the choice of women to get an abortion. Last summer, I spent two weeks in a Christian overnight stay camp. I met numerous unique personalitiesRead MoreAbortion Is The Leading Cause Of Death For Children Under The Age Of One1079 Words   |  5 Pagescurrently considered murder. Abortion is the leading cause of death for children under the age of one. The illegalization of abortion has been a hot topic ever since the landmark 1973 Roe vs. Wade Decision. The controversial debate has divided a whole nation into two â€Å"teams†, pro-life and pro-choice. The debate can be identified raging in all arenas of life; political, private, media, work places, etc. I think the slaughter of the unborn should be outlawed in the US. Abortions should be illegal because ofRead MoreAbortion is Morally and Ethically Wrong Essay1111 Words   |  5 PagesCarol Everett once said â€Å"The product abortion, is skillfully marketed and sold to the women at a crisis time in her life. She buys the product, finds it defective and wants to ret urn it for a refund, but it is too late.† Abortion is one of the most controversial topics amongst not only politicians but also every human being alive; rather they are pro-choice or pro-life. I am personally in between; I believe that is the choice of that particular woman. We can not as a society decide the choices ofRead MoreAbortion Should Not Be Legal946 Words   |  4 PagesSkylar Brister, Michael Clemmons, Ebony Moore Johnson TOK 10.30.15 Abortion Abortion has been around for thousands of years. Abortion was legal in the United states from the time the first settlers arrived. Abortion was legal until in the mid-1800s laws were beginning to be passed to make abortion illegal. All surgical procedures during the mid to late 1800s were extremely dangerous due to the lack of sterilized equipment and the untrained physicians who performed the procedures. The mortality

Digital Revolution free essay sample

The digital revolution has been impacting the societies and communities we live in for a while. The digital revolution has impacted many aspects of the world we live in such as health care, communication, robots, and security. One large aspect in which the digital revolution has effected has been human relationships. The digital revolution will continue to negatively effect relationships among humans in the areas of school, work, and home. In the current era, almost everyone uses technology to interact with one another in some form or another. Technology has made both a negative and positive impact on our society, although it has made a mainly negative impact on the relationships among people. In school teachers are turning towards technology to aid their teaching. This can be beneficial for the information getting across to the students, but it changes the relationship from teacher student to technology student. This fact has effected people emotionally in a negative way. Marketing is a process of selling and promoting goods and services, it involves market research as well as advertising.Marketing must keep up with technology as it evolves; if not there would not be any way to market goods or services to societies who have embraced the digital revolution. With this, some marketers will automatically change towards the digital revolution but some will have a hard time adapting towards the digital revolution. Marketing has no other choice but to move towards digital revolution, as that is where the world is moving towards to as well as where the future will be, and so marketing must keep up with digital revolution. Why?Because if marketing does not give in to the ways of the digital age, how will marketers market? Marketing is needed everywhere, whether we want it or not, it has impacted us greatly in many ways. Both the young and old will have to get used to it. The invention of the internet has impacted marketing in a creative way, such as how advertisers and marketers promote or advertise their products or services. With social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter, it is much easier to reach out to target audiences and also faster. Traditional ethods of advertising and marketing are still used but most make use of the technology today to create better results that before. Those who still use traditional marketing may be left in the dark or poor sales unless they switch to online marketing. Nowadays most societies, have embraced technology, everyone either has a cell phone, laptop, tablet, mp3s or Ipods or Ipads. Retrieving information has become much easier due to the invention of the internet and these gadgets, where we can get information anywhere and anytime whether on the internet, TV, radio etc.Everyone can be kept up to date with what’s going on around the world as well as how companies can keep in touch with their consumers through the internet. News travels fast as well, with the invention of mobile phones, internet and radio unlike before where people had to write letters or even travel in order to get information from one ear to another. Companies like Mango, keep in touch with their consumer through Facebook or through their website, and Star newspapers have also adopted the SMS News updating service, where breaking news is sent to the hand phones, that way the person can be kept updated.Companies are also able to keep immediate feedback from consumers using the internet; it is fast, easy and convenient. It is much easier to reach consumers faster and more conveniently, wh ich builds the relationship between consumers and marketers as communication won’t be such a problem, whether it’s via phone or via internet. With fast feedback, companies can plan and change their ways to please the consumers due to what the consumers has to say. Some companies have questionnaires or feedback page where consumers can express their dissatisfaction or displeasure.The internet has also made paying bills or making payments much easier. With sites such as EBay, consumers can look for what they want online and even purchase it online and have it delivered to them all with click. Banks and insurance companies have adopted this method to make it more convenient for consumers as well as to attract consumers. Transactions between businesses have also changed as they can communicate through email or chat to make communication faster and easier.Some companies such as Dell have a toll free number for customers who have trouble with their gadgets and can call the number and talk to the operator and can repair the gadget by themselves with the aid of the operator on the phone. This saves time and money for the consumers as they do not have to travel to the repair centre and pay for repair services. Advertising has also changed due to digital revolution as they there are many types of media to reach the wanted audience; marketers can customize the way they advertise to grab the consumer’s attention in the most creative way and in many types of media, anytime and anywhere.Advertising today has become very important as it is how marketers let consumers know about their products and services, that is why advertising also has to evolve accordingly to technology. Digital Revolution has also made an impact on consumer behaviour, because as marketing evolves with technology, the consumers will also move into the 21st century, which makes their choices and decisions behind buying a product change.Consumers today, as I’ve mentioned have many choices to choose from and so, logically, consumers want quality products which are affordable. Consumer behaviour has changed, as with the growth of choices, consumers have different likings, particular individualities and buying patt erns due economic, functional and psychological reasons. Today consumers have more power than they did 10 years ago or even 50 years ago, they have choices and opinions, so consumers are very important in determining the success in one’s product or service.There are much more options, varieties of products or service, for example; a washing detergent has more than 10 types of brands or kinds; that is why consumers have more supremacy in the business world, they have options, choices, opinions and decisions. Consumers’ power over purchasing has escalated due to digital revolution, as there is always a new product, or a improved version of a product, etc. These products have set a standard for consumers, so consumers want to be in that standard, in other words they don’t want to be left in the dark and want to follow these technology trends.Technology trends such as the latest games, latest apps, latest gadgets or cell phones. To conclude, Digital Revolution has changed the way we live, the way we see things but most importantly it has changed the future, not only the future of advertising or business but also the world. And at this pace that the world is going, I believe that there is no stopping the ever evolving technologies that are being built, innovated and created today, tomorrow and so forth.

Indoor Tanning Pros and Cons Essay Example For Students

Indoor Tanning Pros and Cons Essay Indoor Tanning Pro’s and Con’s People tend to think indoor tanning is extremely dangerous because of major health concerns, primary culprit being skin cancer. â€Å"Skin cancer is the most common form of cancer in the United States† (Skin Cancer Foundation, Skin Cancer Facts, 2010,  ¶ 1). Indoor tanning has been known to put people at a greater risk of acquiring the most common form of skin cancer, melanoma. One form of melanoma kills approximately 7,800 people annually. Although many studies have shown that indoor tanning can lead to skin cancer, those studies haven’t concluded that a major percentage (or even half of that) was because of indoor tanning use. With government regulations enforcing more regulations and guidelines to adhere to, it would seem that indoor tanning is not as dangerous as people perceive it to be. UVA versus UVB Rays UVB (Ultraviolet B) rays (the burning rays) are the primary culprit behind health risks. These rays penetrate the outer layer of the skin that causes burning. UVB rays are found in both indoor tanning (bulbs) and outdoor sun exposure (sun rays); 30-40 years ago, due to lack of knowledge of skin damage caused by tanning, there were more UVB bulbs in tanning beds. Today tanning beds manufactured use UVA (Ultraviolet A) bulbs. UVA rays tend to penetrate the skin deeper and are less likely to burn the skin. This is the primary reason for manufacturers using little to no UVB bulbs. Government Regulations In the past the government regulations were very lenient. Over the past decade, regulations are becoming stricter, and at the present time the government has enforced new taxes. Currently tanning beds are regulated as Class I medical devices, which is a rating used for low risk products (e. g. tongue depressors). By increasing the classifications to a Class II device, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) could require tanning bed manufacturers to submit information about new tanning machines before they reach the market. Another regulation enforced in 2007 directs the FDA to reexamine tanning bed labels. A bill currently pending in Congress would also limit the strength of UV rays emitted, and time a person is allowed to tan. Most important, the healthcare reform bill signed into law by President Obama March 22, 2010 imposes a 10% tax on tanning beds. Age and Exposure Exposure to UV rays under the age of 30 increases the risk of skin cancer. With 71% of tanning salon patrons being women ages 16-29, this is definitely an area of concern. Out of the nearly 30 million people who use indoor tanning beds annually, 2. 3 million of them are teens. It’s been suggested that tanning salons ban teens. Some salons that regulate tanning require a permission slip be signed by a parent for customers under 18. If more people ages 16-29 were aware of the increased risk of UV exposure’s link to skin cancer, those statistics could decrease tremendously. FDA regulations and guidelines need to be far stricter for teens, or possibly ban them altogether. Conclusion If education and regulations are enforced, indoor tanning could be a safer alternative to outdoor sun exposure, or sun bathing. Prospective customers who are ages 16-29 should be well informed of the health risks involved as it relates to indoor tanning. Salons and manufacturers should also adhere to government regulations and have a moral obligation to their clients. Make sure that clients who do have concerns be informed of other, safe alternatives (e. g. spray tanning). With education on age and exposure, and continuing to regulate and enforce government regulations, indoor tanning isn’t as dangerous as some may think it is. References The Skin Cancer Foundation ( 2010). Skin Cancer Facts. Retrieved August 11, 2010. http://www. skincancer. org/Skin-Cancer-Facts/ Ashton, Dr. Jennifer (2010, March 25). Heat on Tanning Beds: Feds Mull New Rules. .uef5bbbcd6516109b659e1d3b2891e80b , .uef5bbbcd6516109b659e1d3b2891e80b .postImageUrl , .uef5bbbcd6516109b659e1d3b2891e80b .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uef5bbbcd6516109b659e1d3b2891e80b , .uef5bbbcd6516109b659e1d3b2891e80b:hover , .uef5bbbcd6516109b659e1d3b2891e80b:visited , .uef5bbbcd6516109b659e1d3b2891e80b:active { border:0!important; } .uef5bbbcd6516109b659e1d3b2891e80b .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uef5bbbcd6516109b659e1d3b2891e80b { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uef5bbbcd6516109b659e1d3b2891e80b:active , .uef5bbbcd6516109b659e1d3b2891e80b:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uef5bbbcd6516109b659e1d3b2891e80b .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uef5bbbcd6516109b659e1d3b2891e80b .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uef5bbbcd6516109b659e1d3b2891e80b .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uef5bbbcd6516109b659e1d3b2891e80b .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uef5bbbcd6516109b659e1d3b2891e80b:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uef5bbbcd6516109b659e1d3b2891e80b .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uef5bbbcd6516109b659e1d3b2891e80b .uef5bbbcd6516109b659e1d3b2891e80b-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uef5bbbcd6516109b659e1d3b2891e80b:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Human Rights Violations Against Women EssayRetrieved August 12, 2010. http://www. cbsnews. com/stories/2010/03/25/earlyshow/health/main6332004. shtml Walker, Emily P. (2010, March 26). Minors Shouldn’t Use Tanning Beds, Panel Says. Retrieved August 11, 2010. http://www. medpagetoday. com/ProductAlert/DevicesandVaccines/19255 The Herald (2004, September 2). The Dangers of Tanning. Retrieved August 10, 2010. http://pqasb. pqarchiver. com/heraldonline/access/687286741. html? FMT=FTFMTS=ABS:FTtype=currentdate=Sep+2%2C+2004author=The+Heraldpub=Heraldedition=startpage=6. Adesc=The+dangers+of+tanning

Project Life Cycle free essay sample

Executive Summary ABC Technologies is a fast growing computer hardware and network re-seller in Sri Lanka. Due to the expansion in business in recent years ABC has decided to implement Sage Accpac ERP system within the organization. ERP system consultants for the project will be XYZ Solutions. This report is produced for the purpose of critically analysing the project life cycle of the ERP implementation at ABC Technologies. To begin with the ERP implementation at ABC could be called as a project when analysed against different definitions in theory. Due to the characteristics such as availability of a time, cost and resource lans. On the other hand the project is following a specific life cycle which could be defined with major milestones and phases. Project starts with the Initiation phase with the intention of coming up with a Project Proposal. Once the proposal is agreed by and between ABC and XYZ, the project is given the right to move on to the Planning phase. We will write a custom essay sample on Project Life Cycle or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page With the finalization of the relevant milestones for the planning phase, project progress to the Initiation phase and followed by the final phase of the project, namely the Completion phase. Project will come to an end with the signing of the Project Completion Form. Finally in conclusion, it could be recommended that, it is very important to manage each phase of the project with maximum involvement by project leaders from both parties, to achieve the final objective of the project. These project objectives should be clear and concise and should be defined at the initial stages of the project. Further managing the project with a clear idea of the project life cycle will enable the project to move smoothly throughout the project life. Finally it could be recommended to adopt a similar project life cycle to manage similar projects in the future as well. Table of Contents Executive Summary

Home essays

Home essays The Project Home: A Completely Student Production I think that Home was a well-done play. The play was not long, and it kept the audience on its seat at all times. I believe that the play was very well prepared for, and I could tell that effort had been placed in producing Home by all of the students who contributed to the play in some way. This is why this play was very effective. The play happened to be effective in two areas: playwriting and design. This was my first experience with a student-produced play. However, I was pleasantly surprised by the playwriting for the play. There were six individual scenes presented by different students. Almost each scene tends to deal with problems at home except for the last scene. In The Adminadvert, I like the way Ryan Self portrays the tension between the husband and wife by having the husband ignore his wife. This is an underlying effort intended to show what time period it was and explain why Anna was looking out of her window with binoculars. In Come Home Iris, I like the way Rose and Lavenders pains were evoked through their chained feet. In Accident, I didnt understand what Tracy and Dawn were talking about until the middle of the scene. I think that Dawn Hael did a good job of portraying the different scenes that could have happened or what the people really wanted to say. In Echoes of Betrayal, I think that the ensemble did a good job of using two different versions of the same event to explain how the husband felt useless and how the husband tried to cover up his feelings for the other woman. In Tradition, I like the way Elizabeth and James were used to betray Ellie and Anthony for Nana. It makes it seem as if they were continuing the tradition as she previously did. Finally, in Fairy Tale, I like how the play kind of had a happy ending where as most of the other plays were dark and gloomy. The little girl was able to see her prince even after her ...

PSYCHOSOCIAL ASPECTS OF HEALTH Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

PSYCHOSOCIAL ASPECTS OF HEALTH - Essay Example This is explained by the events preceding his maladaptive behavior. He is still morning his wife, who has recently passed on, and this situation leave him vulnerable to drugs and substance use. His social exclusion can aslo be explained by the fact that he has not worked for almost 30 years. As a result, he may have lost friends, especially due to his drinking problem. However, one of the main problems is that Jim lacks strong social bond. He is socially excluded; hence, he cannot share his emotional status with anyone. Due to post-traumatic stress disorder, Jim has become callous to social events and even forgotten about his personal grooming. Social exclusion has been associated with impaired self-regulation and cognition the victims become lonely, and can succumb to self-defeating behaviour (Taylor, 2007). This may include excessive drinking, become unhygiene, and even use illegal drugs. Social exclusion is conceptualized as lack of strong social bonds. The social ties are created with either one’s spouse, family members or friends. However, due to personality issues, a number of people do not have a large social capital or a circle of friends. Unlike most women who keep large circles of friends and strong relationships, men have less or no close friends (Taylor, 2007). women on the other hand use the established social bonds to express their negative emotions, hence may not experience health problems emanating from psychological triggers. Social exclusion, leads to feelings of isolation, loneliness, and estrangement. People are social being, and they thrive well in social interactions. If they cannot form strong social bonds, they are most likely to engage in self-defeating behavior such as excessive drinking. In Jim’s case, it is clear that he is experiencing social exclusion. However, Jim’s scenario can be understood by looking at the events that precede his current behavior. Death is a traumatizing event that can lead to depression and other

Contemporary Marketing- Consumer Behavior Research Paper

Contemporary Marketing- Consumer Behavior - Research Paper Example The type of marketing that is in place today is what is referred to as contemporary marketing. Contemporary marketing, unlike the previous types, has so many considerations to put in place because of the advancements in consumer behavior. While in previous years the procedures involved in successful marketing were simple and absolute, today the complexities have made a somewhat difficult task (Mills, 2004). This paper’s focal point is to analyze and outline the major issue that may arise from consumer behavior and contemporary marketing. The paper also focuses on the link that lies between the two concepts. The issued discussed in this paper are those that are directly related to consumer behavior and contemporary marketing. The issues presented are not the sole viewpoint from which the matter at hand can be analyzed. The level on which a person is dependent on their references varies with the closeness that they share (Charlesworth, 2014). Firstly, there is the primary category of references. This group of people consists of friends, coworkers, family members, and relatives. These people usually influence the consumer reasons. The first reason is that they may have used the product in question at a certain point in time. The second reason is that they may have specific knowledge concerning the product in question. The third reason, the greatest, is that the relationship that an individual has with the people listed determines their categorization in the following groups; Bachelor, Newlywed, Parent, Old age (with adult children). A Bachelor for instance, only values their preference and satisfaction. A parent on the other hand must make purchases that are of value and does not inconvenience their offspring According to a research study carried out by PMR research; consumers prioritize these this influences in different measure. Out of a study carried of 500 regular consumers of a multipurpose store the following

Methods Of Research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Methods Of Research - Essay Example Horton found out that the treatment was effective in helping the girl to stop her spoon banging behavior (Interpreting, and Draw conclusion) In Project situation 2, Latane & Bidwell used observational method of research. Observational research method was used because Latane & Bidwell observed the number of students who entered the college cafeteria accompanied by student or with out company, and determined the gender differences in need for affiliation. In this project situation Latane & Bidwell determined the gender differences in need for affiliation (Identify the problem, and Gather and observing data). In this situation, Latane & Bidwell decided to prove if females need to have greater affiliation than male students (Formulating Hypothesis and testing the hypothesis). Latane & Bidwell found out that females were significantly more likely than males to be in the presence of another person when entering the cafeteria. (Interpreting, and Draw conclusion) This study basically focused on the number of students who entered in college cafeteria with accompanied student or with out accompanied student by gender. This study was also delimited to one school only. The researcher used correlational research method.

Consequences of child abuse and neglect

Consequences of child abuse and neglect Introduction Child abuse and neglect are an unfortunate reality for many children in our community. The past thirty years have witnessed a growth in our awareness of and attention to the problems faced by children exposed to violence in their homes. The consequences of maltreatment can be devastating. For over 30 years, clinicians have described the effects of child abuse and neglect on the physical, psychological, cognitive, and behavioral development of children. Physical consequences range from minor injuries to severe brain damage and even death. Psychological consequences range from chronic low self-esteem to severe dissociative states. The cognitive effects of abuse range from attentional problems and learning disorders to severe organic brain syndromes. Behaviorally, the consequences of abuse range from poor peer relations all the way to extraordinarily violent behaviors. Thus, the consequences of abuse and neglect affect the victims themselves and the society in which they live. REVIEW OF DEFINITIONS A 1989 conference convened by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development recommended that maltreatment be defined as behavior towards another person, which (a) is outside the norms of conduct, and (b) entails a substantial risk of causing physical or emotional harm. Behaviors included will consist of actions and omissions, ones that are intentional and ones that are unintentional (Christoffel et al., 1992). The term child maltreatment refers to a broad range of behaviors that involve risk for the child. Four general categories of child maltreatment are now generally recognized: (1) physical abuse, (2) sexual abuse, (3) neglect, and (4) emotional maltreatment. Each category, in turn, covers a range of behaviors. Physical abuse includes scalding, beatings with an object, severe physical punishment, and a rare form of the abuse called Munchausen by proxy, wherein an adult will feign or induce illness in a child in order to attract medical attention and support. Sexual abuse includes incest, sexual assault by a relative or stranger, fondling of genital areas, exposure to indecent acts, sexual rituals, or involvement in child pornography. Child neglect is the presence of certain deficiencies in caretaker obligations (usually the parent, although neglect can be found in residential centers or foster care homes) that harm the childs psychological and/or physical health. Child neglect covers a range of behaviors including educational, supervisory, medical, physical, and emotional neglect, and abandonment, often complicated by cultural and contextual factors. Several authors (Mrazek and Mrazek, 1985; Zuravin, 1991) have noted the relative lack of attention to definitional issues of child neglect, particularly given its greater reported prevalence (NCCAN, 1981, 1988b; Wolock and Horowitz, 1984). Emotional maltreatment, a recently recognized form of child victimization, includes such acts as verbal abuse and belittlement, symbolic acts designed to terror ize a child, and lack of nurturance or emotional availability by caregivers. Effects of child abuse and neglect Physical Health Consequence The immediate physical effects of abuse or neglect can be relatively minor (bruises or cuts) or severe (broken bones, hemorrhage, or even death). In some cases the physical effects are temporary; however, the pain and suffering they cause a child should not be discounted. Meanwhile, the long-term impact of child abuse and neglect on physical health is just beginning to be explored. According to the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (NSCAW), more than one-quarter of children who had been in foster care for longer than 12 months had some lasting or recurring health problem (Administration for Children and Families, Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation [ACF/ OPRE], 2004a). Below are some outcomes researchers have identified: Shaken baby syndrome: Shaking a baby is a common form of child abuse. The injuries caused by shaking a baby may not be immediately noticeable and may include bleeding in the eye or brain, damage to the spinal cord and neck, and rib or bone fractures (National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2007). Impaired brain development: Child abuse and neglect have been shown, in some cases, to cause important regions of the brain to fail to form or grow properly, resulting in impaired development (De Bellis Thomas, 2003). These alterations in brain maturation have long-term consequences for cognitive, language, and academic abilities (Watts-English, Fortson, Gibler, Hooper, De Bellis, 2006). NSCAW found more than three-quarters of foster children between 1 and 2 years of age to be at medium to high risk for problems with brain development, as opposed to less than half of children in a control sample (ACF/ OPRE, 2004a). Poor physical health: Several studies have shown a relationship between various forms of household dysfunction (including childhood abuse) and poor health (Flaherty et al., 2006; Felitti, 2002). Adults who experienced abuse or neglect during childhood are more likely to suffer from physical ailments such as allergies, arthritis, asthma, bronchitis, high blood pressure, and ulcers (Springer, Sheridan, Kuo, Carnes, 2007). Psychological Consequence The immediate emotional effects of abuse and neglectà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬isolation, fear, and an inability to trustà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬can translate into lifelong consequences, including low self-esteem, depression, and relationship difficulties. Researchers have identified links between child abuse and neglect and the following: Difficulties during infancy: Depression and withdrawal symptoms were common among children as young as 3 who experienced emotional, physical, or environmental neglect (Dubowitz, Papas, Black, Starr, 2002). Poor mental and emotional health: In one long-term study, as many as 80 percent of young adults who had been abused met the diagnostic criteria for at least one psychiatric disorder at age 21. These young adults exhibited many problems, including depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and suicide attempts (Silverman, Reinherz, Giaconia, 1996). Other psychological and emotional conditions associated with abuse and neglect include panic disorder, dissociative disorders, attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder, depression, anger, posttraumatic stress disorder, and reactive attachment disorder (Teicher, 2000; De Bellis Thomas, 2003; Springer, Sheridan, Kuo, Carnes, 2007). Cognitive difficulties: NSCAW found that children placed in out-of-home care due to abuse or neglect tended to score lower than the general population on measures of cognitive capacity, language development, and academic achievement (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2003). A 1999 LONGSCAN study also found a relationship between substantiated child maltreatment and poor academic performance and classroom functioning for school-age children (Zolotor, Kotch, Dufort, Winsor, Catellier, 1999). Social difficulties: Children who experience rejection or neglect are more likely to develop antisocial traits as they grow up. Parental neglect is also associated with borderline personality disorders and violent behavior (Schore, 2003). Behavioural Consequences Not all victims of child abuse and neglect will experience behavioral consequences. However, behavioral problems appear to be more likely among this group, even at a young age. An NSCAW survey of children ages 3 to 5 in foster care found these children displayed clinical or borderline levels of behavioral problems at a rate more than twice that of the general population (ACF, 2004b). Later in life, child abuse and neglect appear to make the following more likely: Difficulties during adolescence: Studies have found abused and neglected children to be at least 25 percent more likely to experience problems such as delinquency, teen pregnancy, low academic achievement, drug use, and mental health problems (Kelley, Thornberry, Smith, 1997). Other studies suggest that abused or neglected children are more likely to engage in sexual risk-taking as they reach adolescence, thereby increasing their chances of contracting a sexually transmitted disease (Johnson, Rew, Sternglanz, 2006). Juvenile delinquency and adult criminality: According to a National Institute of Justice study, abused and neglected children were 11 times more likely to be arrested for criminal behavior as a juvenile, 2.7 times more likely to be arrested for violent and criminal behavior as an adult, and 3.1 times more likely to be arrested for one of many forms of violent crime (juvenile or adult) (English, Widom, Brandford, 2004). Alcohol and other drug abuse: Research consistently reflects an increased likelihood that abused and neglected children will smoke cigarettes, abuse alcohol, or take illicit drugs during their lifetime (Dube et al., 2001). According to a report from the National Institute on Drug Abuse, as many as two-thirds of people in drug treatment programs reported being abused as children (Swan, 1998). Abusive behavior: Abusive parents often have experienced abuse during their own childhoods. It is estimated approximately one-third of abused and neglected children will eventually victimize their own children. Societal Consequences While child abuse and neglect almost always occur within the family, the impact does not end there. Society as a whole pays a price for child abuse and neglect, in terms of both direct and indirect costs. Direct costs: Direct costs include those associated with maintaining a child welfare system to investigate and respond to allegations of child abuse and neglect, as well as expenditures by the judicial, law enforcement, health, and mental health systems. Indirect costs: Indirect costs represent the long-term economic consequences of child abuse and neglect. These include costs associated with juvenile and adult criminal activity, mental illness, substance abuse, and domestic violence. They can also include loss of productivity due to unemployment and underemployment, the cost of special education services, and increased use of the health care system. Possible Treatment Strategies Descriptions of treatment for child sexual abuse, physical abuse, and neglect have been reported separately within the literature, with much more attention paid to treatment of child sexual abuse. In fact, there are relatively few studies or reports of individual treatment of the physically abused or neglected child. In practice, however, treatment programs often address individual needs of children. The emphasis here is cognitive behavioral treatments, as these have shown the greatest effects in controlled studies. General Issues for Treatment First and foremost, it is important that the child be safe from potential harm from the offender as well as from non-believing or unsupportive family members. In addition to ethical issues of treating a child within an unsafe environment, treatment of abuse related problems is not likely to be effective if the child is living in such conditions. The targets for treatment are determined to a large degree by the childs presenting symptoms and are defined following the initial assessment. There are, however, certain overriding goals that should guide the treatment process. Treatment should be directive and focused on the abuse or trauma itself. Treatment approaches: Help and encourage the child to talk and think about the abuse/neglect without embarrassment or significant anxiety. Help the child to modulate and express feelings about the abuse; Reduce the intensity and frequency of behavioral and emotional symptoms; Clarify and change distorted, inaccurate, or unhealthy thinking patterns that might negatively affect the childs view of self and others; Help the child develop healthier attachments; Strengthen the childs coping skills Enhance social skills, and Educate the child regarding self-protective strategies. An additional goal, accomplished specifically through group therapy is to reduce the childs sense of isolation or stigma through exposure to other victims of abuse. Group treatment for victims of child physical abuse can have positive effects but may also be associated with increased behavior problems. Therefore the therapist should be cautious and monitor group participants behavior closely (Kolko Swenson, 2002). Treatment strategies Strategies for treating the abused child are varied and are used as appropriate to the childs presenting problems. Recommended treatment approaches include (Finkelhor Berliner, 1995): 1) cognitive-behavioral strategies, 2) graduated exposure to aspects of the abusive experience, 3) relaxation training , 4) education regarding abuse process and effects of abuse, 5) skills training, 6) supportive strategies teaching self-protective strategies, 7) behavioral strategies/parent training. Strategies for treating abuse victims which have received some scientific support, have been those derived from a cognitive behavioral perspective and which focus on the abuse itself. Cognitive behavioral strategies typically address the childs thinking patterns, affective response, and behavioral reactions to the abuse. In particular, the childs attributions of blame and responsibility for the abuse should be addressed. That is, the child should be helped to recognize that it is adults rather than children who are responsible for healthy parent-child interactions (Finkelhor Berliner, 1995). Gradual exposure or discussion of abuse experiences helps to reduce the childs anxiety and embarrassment and provides opportunities to modify inaccurate or self-defeating thinking processes. Relaxation training further addresses the childs fear or anxiety reaction to abuse-related cues and can facilitate more effective affect regulation. Educational approaches facilitate clarification of misperc eptions developed in response to the abuse. Skills training are used to teach the child coping strategies to manage negative emotions and to improve social/interpersonal functioning. Supportive techniques also are required, as the child may be coping with non-supportive family members, upcoming court proceedings, and/or negative reactions from peers. Education in the use of self-protective strategies is important for minimizing the likelihood that the child will be abused/neglected again (Finkelhor Berliner, 1995). It is important to establish a safety plan within the home, delineate danger cues, and identify support persons in the childs environment to decrease the secrecy within previously abusive/neglectful families. This, in turn, is expected to minimize the risk of repeated abuse. Age-related issues The treatment approach should be appropriate to the age of the child. For example, a four year old child should not be expected to come into a therapist or counselors office, sit on a couch, and recount the details of her abuse. The therapist can utilize a variety of play techniques to encourage the young child to communicate about his or her abuse. Many cognitive behavioral strategies which are used with adolescents and adults can be modified or simplified for use with young children (Kolko Swenson, 2002). For example, there are numerous scripts for relaxation training which are humorous and which engage the child in the therapeutic process. Puppets and drawings are useful as well for helping children to tell of their experiences, learn strategies for coping with negative emotions, and behaving in a more organized and directed manner. In contrast, older children and adolescents are more able to directly communicate their thoughts and feelings about their abuse experiences. It is recommended, however, that the therapist be flexible in method of approach. Drawings, therapeutic stories, and therapeutic games can be very helpful for engaging children of all ages. Treatment duration There are no clear guidelines regarding the length of treatment for the abused or neglected child, although most studies of treatment effectiveness have examined short-term interventions. Clinical experience suggests that while some children can resolve their negative reactions to the abuse in a relatively brief period (i.e., 12 16 sessions), many will require more extended treatment. Typically, treatment length will be determined by the nature of the childs social, behavioral, or emotional difficulties. That is, the child who is experiencing a wide array of problems of a serious nature is likely to require more intensive treatment over a long period of time. In addition, the quality of support that the child is receiving from the non-offending caregiver or other family members will affect treatment length. That is, child problems are typically more significant if there is no support coming from the non-offending caregiver, and, therefore, treatment of the child whose non-offending parent is disbelieving or non-supportive is likely to be more extensive than that of a child who has the support of a non-offending parent. Additional treatment approaches Family involvement in treatment Children should not be treated in isolation of intervention with their family and/or current living situation. Thus, many in the field recognize the importance of incorporating family members, particularly parents or primary caregivers, into treatment addressing abuse and neglect (Kolko Swenson, 2002). The goal of family work is to reduce the risk of recurring abuse, increase safety, and promote healthy growth and development of all family members. Family approaches address the needs of all family members while also targeting the interactions between them. However, it is difficult to specify the precise structure of therapeutic work addressing family issues. The specific approach with the family will vary; depending upon the childs living context and the level of acknowledgement of abuse by offender(s) and non-offending caregiver(s). For example, a child who has been placed in foster care due to parent-child abuse and lack of a supportive non-offending caregiver will be addressing d ifferent issues than the child who is receiving support from a non-offending caregiver and/or whose abusive parent is acknowledging abuse and is committed to treatment. Family work is not indicated if the child is in out-of-home placement and there are no plans for reunification. Treatment involving the entire family and that has as a goal family reunification is generally of a much longer duration than individual treatment of the child. Initial stages involve the child, offender, and non-offending caregiver in individual treatment, allowing members to first address individual issues related to the development and outcomes of the abuse. In addition, marital work is recommended to address relational issues between the childs caregivers prior to any reunification efforts. If early work with caregivers is successful, family therapy may ensue. The clarification session can serve as the bridge between each family members individual treatment and treatment addressing the entire familys needs. Therapeutic interventions with caregivers typically begin with individual sessions addressing the abuse itself, as well as the specific needs of family members. These stages of treatment encourage assumption of responsibility by the offender and non-offending caregiver(s). An alleged perpetrator who is denying having abused the child or a non-offending parent who does not believe that abuse has occurred cannot fully benefit from abuse-specific treatment. Therefore, initial treatment efforts focus on reducing denial. If such efforts fail, family treatment is contraindicated. If the offender is acknowledging having abused and/or neglected the child, then he or she can engage in abuse-specific treatment that addresses faulty thinking patterns, behavioral actions, emotional responses, and physiologic reactions. Sexual abuse offenders will be targeting their sexual arousal to children, thought patterns which allow them to justify perpetrating sexual abuse, and examining the behavioral repertoire that lead up to abuse. Physical abuse offenders will learn strategies for managing anger, parenting skills, and non-physical means of discipline. Caregivers who are neglectful will receive assistance in securing basic goods and resources, will learn parenting strategies and be taught skills which facilitate independent management of the children and familys needs. In the treatment of all forms of abuse it is important to address attributions of blame. Invariably child abuse/neglect offenders minimize their own responsibility for the abuse/neglect and project blame on other family members, most often the victim. The abuse clarification process (Lipovsky et al., 1998), which addresses such attributions, should be included in treatment if at all possible. The abuse clarification involves an acknowledging offender who has proceeded through treatment to a sufficient degree to be able to clarify the nature of the abuse, assume responsibility for the abuse, demonstrate empathy for the childs responses to the abuse, and begin to participate in the development of a family safety plan. The abuse clarification process is addressed in the offenders individual or group treatment and is ongoing, often for many months before an abuse clarification session is possible. The abuse clarification session provides the opportunity for the offender to read a letter written to the child victim that focuses on the offenders assumption of responsibility, empathy for the child, and commitment to developing the family safety plan. This session is likely to occur some months after the abuse are disclosed, allowing the offender sufficient opportunity to engage in and progress in his/her own treatment. Ideally, at least one supportive adult should be included in the treatment process. Several programs around the country have targeted non-caregivers parents in their approach to treating child sexual abuse and have found success with such an approach.16, 32, 50 Treatment with non-offending caregivers also must also be built upon a foundation of acknowledgement that abuse has occurred. In most cases, where non-offending caregivers believe and support their child, family work addresses the caregivers individual needs. Early treatment strategies must address denial if it is present. Treatment of the non-offending caregiver(s) addresses his/her emotional responses to the abuse and individual mental health needs. In addition, treatment includes focus on the caregivers responses to the childs abuse, education regarding the childs symptoms and provides assistance for developing strategies for reducing these symptoms. It is recommended that the non-offending parent be involved in an abuse protection clarification (Wilson Ralston, 1995). This process is similar to the abuse clarification conducted with the offender. The protection clarification involves clarification of the abuse, commitment to protection of the child, and participation in the development of a family safety plan. The protection clarification may be initiated relatively early in treatment, especially if the non-offending parent believes and supports the child from the time of disclosure. Long-term family resolution of parent-child abuse is a life-long process and involves changing many aspects of family functioning. Some type of resolution must occur in all cases, regardless of whether the child or offender has been removed from the home. Resolution may take the form of helping a child adjust to permanent foster care and cope with a non-supportive family or may involve reunification of the family following the successful completion of individual/group treatment, the clarification process, and family therapy which addresses a safety plan, alteration of family members rigid patterns of thinking and behaving (Saunders Meinig, 2000). Home-Based Services and Family Preservation Services Home-based services and family preservation services address the overall needs of families, include both children and parents, and focus directly on contextual factors, such as poverty, single parenthood, and marital discord, that increase stress, weaken families, and elicit aggressive behavior (Kolko, in press). These programs target functional relationships among diverse individual, family, and systemic problems by combining traditional social work with various therapeutic counseling approaches. The use of home-based services has been advocated in response to the multiple problems found among abusive and neglectful families, difficulties in providing services in a traditional format, and interests in reducing the number of children placed in foster care. The breadth of potential family dysfunction has encouraged hands-on approaches that address risk factors at multiple levels of the family system, such as financial problems, disruption, social isolation, and behavioral deviance (Frankel, 1988). Self-Help Services for Abusive Adults Self-help support and treatment programs are based on the premise that individuals can benefit from learning about the victimization experiences of others. These programs have attracted popular support in a wide range of health services, including the treatment of alcoholism, weight loss, and rape counseling programs, and they have also been applied in the treatment of both physically and sexually abusive adults.. A self-help component has also been integrated into treatment programs for intra-familial sexual abuse (Giaretto, 1982). Parental Enhancement Most parental enhancement programs focus on training abusive parents in child management (e.g., effective discipline), childrearing (e.g., infant stimulation), and self-control skills (e.g., anger control). Programs for neglectful parents typically focus on areas such as nutrition, homemaking, and child care. Parental enhancement programs may help some families who experience child management problems when a sexually abusive father is removed from the home. In these cases, child management skills help develop positive child- parent interaction in sexually abusive families. The efficacy of parent training approaches for physically abusive parents has been supported by various single-case studies, one study using repeated measures, and group design studies (Azar and Twentyman, 1984; Crimmins et al., 1984; Gilbert, 1976; Jeffrey, 1976; Reid et al., 1981; Szykula and Fleischman, 1985; Wolfe et al., 1981a,b, 1982). Studies of multiple approaches and diverse populations have provided consistent evidence that parents can acquire behavioral skills and use them in interactions with their children, at least in clinical settings (Golub et al., 1987). Some evidence suggests that training has reduced parental distress or symptomatology and, in some instances, improved child functioning (Wolfe et al., 1988) and reduced the likelihood of child placement (Szykula and Fleischman, 1985). Efforts to expand the scope of parental enhancement programs have fostered attention to parents cognitive-attributional and affective repertoires (see Azar and Siegel, 1990). Therapeuti c directions highlight the need to incorporate diverse skills and to evaluate the effectiveness of individual approaches (see Azar and Wolfe,1989). Psychopharmacologic treatment for child victims Medications may be used with child victims of abuse and neglect who are experiencing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). A number of medications may be of use, though the state of our knowledge about which are most appropriate for use in children is limited. Some have recommended that the use of medication may be reserved for those children who do not show improvement with cognitive-behavioral treatments for PTSD. Children experiencing other types of behavioral or emotional difficulties, including depression, anxiety, or attentional problems also can benefit from pharmacologic treatment. In all cases, the choice of medications is determined by psychiatrist through a careful assessment. Family Income and Supplemental Benefits The relationship of poverty to child maltreatment, specifically child neglect, is thought to be significant. Several government programs designed to alleviate or mitigate the effects of poverty on children are often part of a comprehensive set of services for low-income, maltreating families. Such programs include Social Security supplemental income programs, Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC), Women with Infants and Children food supplement program (WIC), Head Start, rent subsidy programs, and school lunch programs, among others. Gil (1970) has stated that almost 60 percent of families reported for incidents of abuse and neglect received aid from public assistance agencies during or prior to the study year. However, while national and local child welfare programs designed to improve the well-being of all poor families may provide food, shelter, and other necessary resources, for children in households characterized by neglect or abuse, the relationship between income support, material assistance, and the subsequent reduction of maltreatment has not been systematically addressed. CONCLUSIONS Medical, psychological, social, and legal interventions in child maltreatment cases are based on assumptions that such interventions can reduce the negative physical, behavioral, and psychological consequences of child abuse and neglect, foster attitudes and behaviors that improve the quality of parent-child interactions and limit or eradicate recurrences of maltreatment. Interventions have been developed in response to public, professional, legal, and budgetary pressures that often have competing and sometimes contradictory policies and objectives. Some intervention services focus on protecting the child or protecting the community; others focus on providing individual treatment for the child, the offender, or both; others emphasize developing family coping strategies and improving skills in parent-child interactions. Assumptions about the severity of selected risk factors, the adequacy of caretaking behaviors, the impact of abuse, and the steps necessary to prevent abuse or neglect from recurring may vary given the goals and context of the intervention. Little is known about the character and effects of existing interventions in treating different forms of child maltreatment. No comprehensive inventory of treatment interventions currently exists, and we lack basic descriptive and evaluative information regarding key factors that influence the delivery and outcomes of treatment for victims and offenders at different developmental stages and in different environmental contexts. A coherent base of research information on the effectiveness of treatment is not available at this time to guide the decisions of case workers, probation officers, health professionals, family counselors, and judges. Investigations of child maltreatment reports often influence the development and availability of other professional services, including medical examinations, counseling, evaluation of risk factors, and substantiation of complaints. References Administration for Children and Families, Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation. (2004a). Who are the children in foster care? NSCAW Research Brief No. 1. Retrieved August 9, 2007, from the National Data Archive on Child Abuse and Neglect website: www.ndacan. cornell.edu/NDACAN/Datasets/Related_Docs/NSCAW_Research_Brief_1.pdf A

Comparing The Chrysalids and The Day of the Triffids :: comparison compare contrast essays

The Chrysalids and The Day of the Triffids    _____John Wyndham's science fiction novels, The Chrysalids and The Day of the Triffids, do not focus on incredible and unbelievable developments in technology, as do novels of many of the stereotypical science fiction writers, yet instead focus on how the people; particularly the protagonist, deal with the many uncomfortable situations they are faced in the frightening world of the future.    _____The Day of the Triffids is perhaps Wyndham's best known novel, and tells of explosions in space blinding a large proportion of the population, at the same time as an agricultural experiment goes horribly wrong, and millions of triffids, carnivorous plants, populate every corner of the globe, threatening mankind's very existence. In The Day of the Triffids, Wyndham speculates on many things. He contemplates how the people would deal with wide-spread blindness, and how they would accept the danger of carnivorous plants on the loose - not a contemporary invention, simply basic biology working against us. In his writings he considers how the remaining people of the world would deal with such a situation, that changing situations do require new ways, and what new ways would gain acceptance.    _____Speculation about how people would react widespread blindness is an integral part of The Day of the Triffids. Wyndham considered what the consequences would be; that most of the population would die of starvation because of their inability to carry out normal daily tasks such as buying the groceries and preparing meals without the assistance of a person with twenty-twenty vision, not to mention the overhanging danger of the triffids.    'My dear,' I said. 'I don't like this anymore than you do. I've put the alternative badly before you. Do we help those who have survived the catastrophe to rebuild some kind of life?' (p 103)    Wyndham uses quotes such as that above to allow the reader to consider what the consequences would be, and also to work on the conscience of the receiving character. Wyndham considers how the people of the world would cope in such a disastrous situation with an overwhelming majority of the population being blind, where the small proportion still sighted are relied on by numbers of one thousand to one for the survival of the human race. He focuses on the devotion and responsibility it would take, to in effect, save civilization as we now know it.

Stipends for College Athletes

It’s about time: Stipends for College Athletes Imagine being a college football star and finding out that a jersey representing your school with your name and number on the back is not only selling for $110 in stores nationally, but it is profiting higher than some professional sports jerseys. Now, imagine that you as that student-athlete will not be making a single penny off your institution using your name for monetary profit. Why you ask? Because according to the governing body of collegiate sports, the National Collegiate Athletic Association or NCAA, this would be considered an act that would bring an athlete out of his amateur status.Yet, it is okay to exploit that athlete’s talents as if he or she were a professional athlete and not compensate him or her. The NCAA started off as a small organization whose first objective was to solve an injury crisis in college football. However, with a growing governing power came more change. In 1852, Collegiate competition or â€Å"sport† made its debut in the form of a regatta race between Harvard and Yale (â€Å"Intercollegiate History of NCAA† 1). Soon after came the establishment of baseball and collegiate football.In the beginning, competition and funding was organized through student-run campaigns, and school officials had very little control over the intercollegiate sports movement. However, in 1905, after a number of deaths and serious injuries occurred to students playing collegiate football, a group of school officials were summoned together to make a Kastel 2 series of rules that would emphasize safety within the sport. Just five years later in 1910, this group became established and came to be known as the NCAA (â€Å"History of Intercollegiate Athletics† 1).As the years progressed, the NCAA established sanctions not just for football but all sports. Most notably in 1950, the NCAA established that â€Å"Students could be awarded scholarships based on their athletic abili ty, but the funds had to be administered by the financial aid office, not the athletic department. The amount was limited to tuition and fees, and payments from sources outside the university (e. g. , alumni boosters) were banned. † (qtd in â€Å"History of Intercollegiate Athletics† 2).NCAA officials wanted to stress that there was a clear line that needed to be drawn between a student athlete’s main goal of pursuit towards higher education and the distracting blue elephant in the room of their college sports teams operating like that of a professional organization. Hence, the term â€Å"amateurism†. On amateurism, the NCAA stated that â€Å"student-athletes shall be amateurs †¦ and should be protected from exploitation by professional and commercial enterprises,† ( â€Å"2011-12 NCAA Division I Manual† 1).Although the original intentions of this bylaw were to make sure professionalism in sport didn’t deter athletes away from hig her education, too much has changed within intercollegiate sports for the same standards to apply today. The NCAA’s goal was too make sure these young players continued along their famous â€Å"amateurism† tagline, but we see them featured as unstoppable super heroes throwing down monstrous one handed dunks or making bone crushing tackles in commercials advertising for games as if they were professionals. The very Kastel 3 rganization controlling college sports has in itself become the exploiter of athletes in its own commercial pursuits. With this exploitation comes a very large elephant in the room spraying water at the American public from its trunk. The huge discrepancy between the monetary value of a scholarship the NCAA provides players with and the actual profits it generates from the player’s efforts is astounding. Although the profit rapidly increases with college sports popularity, the benefits student athletes receive stay constant.The largest financi al rewards a student athlete can receive for their athletic contributions are the benefits of free room and board, tuition, and a food plan. If we take the cost of these factors over the student athletes’ time at their institution, compared to the hundreds of billions of dollars generated in revenue from the NCAA we see something similar to Nike and their illegal sweatshop industry. It’s time for change to take place, college athletes should be rewarded like the professionals in the NCAA and conferences across the country market them to be.College athletes should receive stipends because there is a large discrepancy between what college athletes are worth and how much they are given, because athletic scholarships do not cover the full cost of living, and because the operation, money, and industry associated with college athletics is too great to still be titled â€Å"amateur†. The popularity of college sports and its value to entertainment is skyrocketing. The N CAA is the head organization in control of a hundred billion dollar industry.The disgusting disparity arrives at the difference between what Kastel 4 college athletes are rewarded with and the actual revenues the NCAA is collecting. For this discrepancy college athletes need to be rewarded for their effort and should be given stipends. Television broadcasting contracts, shoe and apparel deals, and commercial advertising rake in billions of dollars for the NCAA because of the participation of college students in sports. Last year alone, the NCAA’s total revenue was $777 million.Although the NCAA claims that 98 cents to every dollar is redistributed back into schools athletic programs for things like student services for athletes and athletic funding, it just so happens that there was a $29 million surplus which was claimed by the NCAA as â€Å"reserve† in 2010 (â€Å"Expenses vs. Revenue† 1). Apparently, saving up your change is beneficial. I never knew two-cent increments could lead to tens of millions of dollars. Such revenue comes from things like its newly acquired 14 year/$11 billion dollar deal with CBS-Turner over broadcasting rights for the NCAA tournament (O’Toole 1).It is kind of like a major motion picture company producing one of the highest generating films in history and letting its actors know that they won’t be receiving a financial reward for their contributions, but the work experience they are receiving should suffice. In no other industry or job field in this country would such a compensation to revenue ratio be considered acceptable. They serve the title â€Å"amateurism† to American college athletes on a big plate of propaganda.In 2008, the NCAA teamed up with IMG College to lease its rights out to video game king Electronic Arts, making games such as NCAA Football and NCAA Basketball using the likeness of players they sold over 2. 5 million copies (Branch 1). The student athletes that were feature d on these games had their Kastel 5 numbers reflected accurately, their physical attributes like race, hair style, and even their athletic prowess such as their speed, strength, passing/blocking/catching abilities all accurately associated with their real abilities in order to ensure players of the video games could maneuver round the field like their favorite college superstar. There isn’t anything â€Å"amateur† about exploiting college student athlete’s likeliness in a video game for profit; the double standard is disgusting. However, the NCAA isn’t the only one caught with their arm elbow deep in the cookie jar. Such conferences such as the SEC, ACC, and the BIG 10 are generating billion dollar contracts for individual television networks while student-athletes are being kept in the dark for their contributions.For instance, the SEC conference will be earning $55 million over 15 years from a CBS deal, and a 15 year deal with ESPN that cashes out to $1 50 million (â€Å"Winners and Losers† 1). Despite the players being the ones who are generating the audiences, none of these profits from the NCAA or the conferences are being returned back to the students directly. In fact, if we were to try to mathematically calculate the value of how much an athletes room and board fees come out to divided by the amount of time they actually put into being an athlete most are living just above, if not below, the poverty line.For example, a recent study found Duke University basketball players based upon their generated revenue for the school to be worth $1,025,650 . Yet, after calculation (scholarship value / number of hours each puts in) they were found to be living just $732 above the poverty line (â€Å"Research-NCPA† 1). After being worth over one million dollars to their university, they are only rewarded approximately a $200,000 education. Kastel 6 Current college athletes and those from the past are starting to realize this e xploitation more and more especially as profit from television deals and sponsorships become more lucrative.Almost every month the American public is presented with a new story of how a college athlete unfairly received either a monetary reward or a free service because of his athletic talents. We get mad at the young athletes and criticize them for such actions but can we really blame them? They are superstars generating attention, money, and huge popularity to their institutions and they aren’t receiving anything different than the kid slapping together the cymbals after every touchdown.College athletes are taking gifts and money because they are becoming aware of the NCAA’s exploitation and on top of that most of their scholarships don’t even cover their full cost of living. In the perfect world, when watching our favorite college athletes on TV we like to imagine that they came from strong households with parents who paid for their training and had all the o pportunities to be successful. We would like to think the tattooed face of a little girl on our favorite college point guard’s arm is just his little sister not his daughter who he thinks about trying to send enough money too every week.Fact of the matter is, college athletes across the country have a variety of circumstances that consume any opportunities for extra money. Things like coming from broken home families, having children at home, or coming from a low economic neighborhoods cause many student athletes to stress over where their next dollar could come from. Things like clothes, gas, toiletries, amenities, fun activities, extra food for the room, or a meal away from dining hall are all things that Kastel 7 are essential to have money for in college.However, college athletes can only be awarded a scholarship. It bewilders America when we hear of cases of college athletes accepting sums of money under the table in what is becoming an increasingly large black market. H owever, this happens all the time. We only hear about the ones who get caught. Yet, the players aren’t the ones to blame. According to a study conducted by Drexel University Department of Sport Management, the average scholarship shortfall, or what the average student athlete had to spend out of his own pocket in 2010-11, was approximately $3,222 (â€Å"Research-NCPA† 2).When the scholarships we have don’t cover the student-athletes full cost of living how do we expect them to be able to pay for the necessities of living? If a player has been out of gas for three weeks and is out of toiletries can we really blame him from accepting cash in a handshake from a booster? College athletes’ time is consumed by their sports. According to a survey conducted with 21,000 Division I, II, and III athletes, â€Å"Football players in the NCAA's Division I Bowl Subdivision (formerly known as Division I-A) said they spent an average of 44. hours a week on their sport â €” playing games, practicing, training and in the training room — compared with a little less than 40 hours on academics† (qtd. in Wieberg 1). This staggering statistic reveals that college athletes are actually spending more of their time on their sport then their actual school work. It is even more staggering when the NCAA’s bylaw requires that student athletes only spend 20 hours a week on their sport. With these types of time commitments and dedication to their sports, college athletes don’t have time to have a job. This dilemma intensifies the problem of Kastel 8 aving a scholarship shortfall. If there are necessary things to pay for and athletes don’t have the necessary time to work where is the money supposed to come from? College athletes should receive a stipend of $2,500 a semester to ensure that any necessary cost outside of their scholarship can be covered. By introducing this stipend the number of NCAA infractions relating to athlet es taking money will dramatically decrease due to the fact that they won’t need to anymore. One might say that this would anger regular students who do not receive such benefits.However, according to one statistical survey taken by 458 college students, 58% of them believed that college athletes deserved to receive stipends (â€Å"College Students Perceptions† 1). This study demonstrates that not only would regular students not be upset by college athletes receiving the reward they deserve, but in fact they recognize the need for it. By offering something to college athletes (scholarship) which still requires them to spend such a large sum out of their own pockets we are basically tempting them to fall into the illegal activities of the black market and potentially jeopardize their academic futures.Stipends must be rewarded and reform is necessary now. The NCAA cannot expect a player with a hungry child at home to refuse money from a booster, just as it cannot place th e term â€Å"amateurism† around an industry it exploited to be so focused around money. The NCAA suggests that if we were to provide college student athletes with stipends it would take away the â€Å"wholeness† that college sports still represent by replacing their â€Å"amateur† title with that of â€Å"professionalism†. However, college sports which once symbolized the unselfish competitive spirit of America and were Kastel 9 nce run by student led organizations with no influence from school officials or corrupt institutions have already become a capital venture. This is not because of the introduction of a stipend reward system, but rather because the money, operation, and industry the NCAA created around college sports has made it too professional in its financial pursuits to be considered â€Å"amateur†. The term â€Å"amateurism† is no longer fit to represent college sports but rather a propaganda add by the NCAA to allow them to cont inue their exploitive efforts.One of the largest indications of the pursuit of this commercial enterprise is the unbelievable amount of money that college coaches are being paid. In 2010, Alabama coach Nick Saban committed to a contract that would pay him $4 million dollars a season (Low 1). Most FBS Division 1 institutions athletic departments have a hard time generating any profit at all, but the NCAA allows schools to present astonishing contracts to coaches in order to point their team in the right direction. Yet, the NCAA sees a student athlete receiving a small stipend more of a venture towards professionalism than this?Another indication that college sports can no longer be placed under the â€Å"amateur† title is apparent in the evolution of college stadiums. Today the illustration of a new corporate sponsorship is apparent in almost every stadium with things like â€Å"Ohio State University’s new $105 million Schottenstein Center, 110 luxury boxes at Neyland Stadium (University of Tennessee), and the University of Michigan spending $7. 4 million to renovate Michigan Stadium† (qtd. in â€Å"College Student’s Perceptions† 2). The NCAA isn’t keeping the industry around college sports simple with basic venues and humble salaries for their coaches.Instead they Kastel 10 create something that is slowing resembling that of professional sports environments. For these exploitations the NCAA can no longer hold college athletics today to a standard of remaining â€Å"amateurism†. The industry surrounding it has far surpassed that point and it is time we reward our college athletes like the professionals we market them to be. Many people argue that even if the NCAA does come to its senses and passes a law regulating stipends for Division I institutions, Title IX implications would make it almost impossible to implement stipends.Those critics argue that if stipends were approved, Title IX would then regulate all stu dent athletes at the school to receive stipends due to equal opportunity. The sum of money required to be able to provide every student athlete with this, critics say, would be impossible for even successful athletic departments to afford. It is correct that such a reward would be possible for schools to afford. Stipends should only be given to the top three sports that are generating the most revenue. It would create more of an incentive for programs to be successful, and it would reward student athletes of the teams who were having the greatest success.Title IX cannot be applied to the stipend system because it is outdated and needs to be reformed. Title IX was originally created for the racial movement in order to encourage what, at that time, was a change that needed to be enforced (â€Å"In Defense† 1). Today, many schools athletic departments actually lose money by trying to comply with the outdated law. In order to equally match the number of guy to girl scholarships a university might be forced to eliminate a men’s revenue generating sport such as hockey and instead Kastel 11 add a women’s sport that loses money ( â€Å"In Defense† 2).Title IX is outdated and if a stipend system is established, the top 3 revenue generating teams should receive a stipend. Whether the NCAA wants to accept it or not, their exploitive actions in pursuit of commercial profit have eliminated any sense of college sports today seeming â€Å"amateur†. Because of this exploitation it is time for college student athletes to finally receive the proper reward they have deserved for a good amount of time. College athletes should receive stipends because there is a large discrepancy between what college athletes are worth and how much they are given.This is because athletic scholarships do not cover the full cost of living, and also because the operation, money, and industry associated with college athletics is too great to still be titled â€Å"am ateur†. By affording these stipends to college athletes, maybe just maybe, when that athlete walks into the store and sees that jersey with his name on the back he might be financially secure enough with his living expenses to be able to purchase it. Works Cited â€Å"2011-2012 NCAA Division I Manual (August 2011). † NCAA Manual. NCAA. org. Web. 09 Nov. 2011. Branch, Taylor. The Shame of College Sports – Magazine – The Atlantic. † The Atlantic — News and Analysis on Politics, Business, Culture, Technology, National, International, and Life – TheAtlantic. com. Web. 19 Nov. 2011. â€Å"College Students' Perceptions On The Payment Of Intercollegiate Student-Athletes – Statistical Data Included – Page 2 | College Student Journal. † Find Articles | News Articles, Magazine Back Issues & Reference Articles on All Topics. Web. 19 Nov. 2011. â€Å"History of Intercollegiate Athletics and the NCAA. † World Scientific P ublishing Co. , 12 May 2009.Web. â€Å"In Defense of Collegiate Athletics: The Case Against Paying Student-Athletes – Garnet And Black Attack. † Garnet And Black Attack – For South Carolina Gamecocks Fans. Web. 19 Nov. 2011. â€Å"Intercollegiate History of the NCAA. † NCAA Public Home Page NCAA. org. Web. 09 Nov. 2011. Low, Chris. â€Å"Nick Saban Commits to Alabama Crimson Tide through 2017 Season – ESPN. † ESPN: The Worldwide Leader In Sports. Web. 19 Nov. 2011. O'Toole, Thomas. â€Å"NCAA Reaches 14-year Deal with CBS/Turner for Men's Basketball Tournament, Which Expands to 68 Teams for Now. News, Travel, Weather, Entertainment, Sports, Technology, U. S. & World – USATODAY. com. Web. 17 Nov. 2011. â€Å"Research | National College Players Association. † Home | National College Players Association. Web. 18 Nov. 2011. â€Å"Revenue Vs. Expenses. † NCAA Public Home Page – NCAA. org. Web. 17 Nov. 2011. Wieberg, S teve. â€Å"Study: College Athletes Are Full-time Workers – USATODAY. com. † News, Travel, Weather, Entertainment, Sports, Technology, U. S. & World – USATODAY. com. Web. 19 Nov. 2011. â€Å"Winners and Losers In SEC TV Deal. † College Gridiron 365. Web. 17 Nov. 2011.

The eNotes Blog The Worst (Fictional) Jobs inLiterature

The Worst (Fictional) Jobs inLiterature Every week in a competition of wits The New Yorker asks a question of the Twitter-verse. One of our favorite questions was when they asked followers to reply to the question,  Whats the worst job in literature? Although James Joyces proofreader appeared several times in the list, most tweeters stuck to the fictional theme. In the end the job The NY  found worse than Hamlets motivational coach and Jay Gatsbys pool boy was the winning entry Narcissus girlfriend. There were, however, so many gems within the bunch that we had to round up a Top Ten for you. Think your jobs unbearable? Check out the hilarious responses below: 1. Captain Hooks harpsichord key repairman from  Peter Pan by J. M. Barrie 2. The reception committee for Godot from Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett 3. The chiropractor of Notre-Dame from The Hunchback of Notre-Dame by Victor Hugo 4.  Gregor Samsas exterminator from The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka 5.  Public relations for Lisbeth Salander from The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo by Stieg Larsson 6. Richard IIIs physiotherapist from William Shakespeares Richard III 7. Hester Prynnes stylist from The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne 8. Huck Finns elocutionist from The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain 9. Ophelias swim instructor from Hamlet by William Shakespeare 10. Oedipuss shrink. Or  ophthalmologist. from Oedipus Rex by Sophocles

Free Mеyеr Schapiro in Silos Essay

Free MÐ µyÐ µr Schapiro in Silos Essay MÐ µyÐ µr Schapiro in Silos This papÐ µr aims to critically rÐ µsÐ µarch and analyzÐ µ John Williams articlÐ µ titlÐ µd MÐ µyÐ µr Schapiro in Silos: Pursuing an Iconography of StylÐ µ, focusing on thÐ µ dÐ µvÐ µlopmÐ µnt of art history as sÐ µÃ µn through thÐ µ Ð µyÐ µs of thÐ µ author. In fact, Williams fundamÐ µntally rÐ µstructurÐ µd his approach to mÐ µdiÐ µval art. Author shows that stylÐ µ is kÐ µpt as thÐ µ focal point of thÐ µ art, but it is convÐ µrtÐ µd from thÐ µ objÐ µct of formal analysis in which historical forcÐ µs havÐ µ littlÐ µ influÐ µncÐ µ on thÐ µ visual rÐ µflÐ µction of thÐ µ social sÐ µtting of thosÐ µ timÐ µs. Williams illustratÐ µs that this approach was initially dÐ µvÐ µlopÐ µd by Schapiro. ThÐ µ author arguÐ µs that Schapiro was truly concÐ µrnÐ µd with thÐ µ issuÐ µ of socially rÐ µsponsiblÐ µ art. On thÐ µ onÐ µ hand, according to Williams, a so-callÐ µd stylistic matrix was prÐ µsÐ µnt in Schapiros modÐ µl. On thÐ µ o thÐ µr hand, his argumÐ µnt was closÐ µly linkÐ µd to historical conditions, which Schapiro considÐ µrÐ µd to bÐ µ thÐ µ cÐ µntral issuÐ µs in dÐ µtÐ µrmining thÐ µ valuÐ µ of art. Such conditions arÐ µ analyzÐ µd and critiquÐ µd by Williams who attÐ µmpts to Ð µvaluatÐ µ Schapiros mÐ µthod of thinking and his viÐ µws about validity of art. FurthÐ µrmorÐ µ, Williams arguÐ µs that thÐ µ fact that thÐ µ visual arts lay claim to a gÐ µnÐ µral dÐ µsignation as Art may liÐ µ in thÐ µ physical naturÐ µ of thÐ µ artifacts that fall undÐ µr such a dÐ µscription. LitÐ µraturÐ µ can prÐ µsÐ µnt itsÐ µlf in any lÐ µgiblÐ µ form. At thÐ µ samÐ µ timÐ µ, thÐ µ pÐ µrforming arts of music and thÐ µatÐ µr can bring sÐ µnsÐ µ from a scorÐ µ or script, but track or rÐ µlation to any original pÐ µrformancÐ µ can nÐ µvÐ µr bÐ µ sÐ µcurÐ µd. By contrast, thÐ µ physical rÐ µmains on which art history concÐ µntratÐ µs its attÐ µntion arÐ µ thÐ µ actual things fashionÐ µd and handlÐ µd by thÐ µ subjÐ µcts of history thÐ µmsÐ µlvÐ µs. Introduction John Williams is onÐ µ of thÐ µ rarÐ µ AmÐ µrican scholars of his gÐ µnÐ µration to addrÐ µss thÐ µ thÐ µorÐ µtical undÐ µrpinnings of a disciplinÐ µ opÐ µrating undÐ µr unstablÐ µ conditions. ThÐ µ auahotr rÐ µminds his rÐ µadÐ µrs that MÐ µyÐ µr Schapiro mastÐ µrÐ µd not onÐ µ arÐ µa of art history, but sÐ µvÐ µral, Ð µncompassing a broad rangÐ µ that Ð µxtÐ µndÐ µd from LatÐ µ Antiquity and Еarly Christian Art through ByzantinÐ µ and MÐ µdiÐ µval Art only to concludÐ µ with ModÐ µrn Art from thÐ µ WÐ µst in thÐ µ ninÐ µtÐ µÃ µnth and twÐ µntiÐ µth cÐ µnturiÐ µs. HÐ µ was in fact a pionÐ µÃ µring scholar in thÐ µ fiÐ µld. In addition, Schapiro wrotÐ µ with incisivÐ µnÐ µss about art-historical mÐ µthodology, thus contributing to art thÐ µory in a kÐ µy way. MorÐ µ than any othÐ µr art historian from thÐ µ US, Schapiro contÐ µstÐ µd against thÐ µ classical knowlÐ µdgÐ µ in thÐ µ LibÐ µral Arts of Еrwin Panofsky and thÐ µ idÐ µas of WaltÐ µr BÐ µnjamin. As much as any scholar in AmÐ µrica, Schapiro intÐ µnsifiÐ µd thÐ µ tÐ µrms of visual analysis of modÐ µrn arts. Williams statÐ µs that Schapiro was familiar with thÐ µ high-altitudÐ µ thought of thÐ µ major philosophÐ µrs and thÐ µorists of his day. ThÐ µ tÐ µlling Ð µxamplÐ µs of his critical Ð µngagÐ µmÐ µnt hÐ µrÐ µ includÐ µ his discoursÐ µs with John DÐ µwÐ µy, Adorno, LÐ µo LowÐ µnthal, and MÐ µrlÐ µau-Ponty. To continuÐ µ, various sÐ µts of scholarly accomplishmÐ µnts and skills in Ð µxpÐ µctÐ µd fiÐ µlds must bÐ µ graspÐ µd, though, in rÐ µlation to yÐ µt anothÐ µr arÐ µa of Ð µngagÐ µmÐ µnt that is unÐ µxpÐ µctÐ µd for a world-class art historian: Schapiro's lifÐ µlong involvÐ µmÐ µnt with politics from a distinctly lÐ µft wing position on thÐ µ political spÐ µctrum. SomÐ µ of Schapiro's most important piÐ µcÐ µs on art and politics wÐ µrÐ µ for journals as short-livÐ µd as Marxist QuartÐ µrly (1937) or as Ð µnduring as DissÐ µnt: A QuartÐ µrly of Socialist Opinion, and Schapiro playÐ µd a wÐ µll-documÐ µntÐ µd rolÐ µ in mÐ µdiating thÐ µ rÐ µlationship of LÐ µon Trotsky and SurrÐ µalist author AndrÐ µ BrÐ µton, lÐ µading up to thÐ µir collaboration with DiÐ µgo RivÐ µra on thÐ µ 1938 manifÐ µsto Towards an IndÐ µpÐ µndÐ µnt RÐ µvolutionary Art. ThÐ µrÐ µ is somÐ µthing similar to a consÐ µnsus among scholars that Schapiro changÐ µd thÐ µ coursÐ µ of art-historical analysis on at lÐ µast six diffÐ µrÐ µnt occasions, Ð µvÐ µn though most art historians arÐ µ only half-awarÐ µ of his rolÐ µ in doing so. WhilÐ µ naming thÐ µsÐ µ half-dozÐ µn distinct 'momÐ µnts' in thÐ µ lifÐ µ of thÐ µ disciplinÐ µ bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn thÐ µ latÐ µ 1920s and thÐ µ latÐ µ 1960s, Schapiro madÐ µ four things into dÐ µfining attributÐ µs of almost Ð µvÐ µrything hÐ µ wrotÐ µ. ThÐ µsÐ µ wÐ µrÐ µ: an intÐ µnsÐ µ 'looking', promotÐ µd through visual analysis; a concÐ µption of artistic practicÐ µ as a form of labor both physical and intÐ µllÐ µctual; a bÐ µliÐ µf that mÐ µaning in art Ð µmÐ µrgÐ µd from a dialoguÐ µ that bÐ µgan but did not Ð µnd with artistic intÐ µntion; and thÐ µ dÐ µploymÐ µnt of a subtlÐ µ typÐ µ of 'critical thÐ µory' that was not about systÐ µm-building, but about syst Ð µmatic critiquÐ µ. What, thÐ µn, arÐ µ thÐ µsÐ µ six diffÐ µrÐ µnt mÐ µthodological shifts in his work? ThÐ µ first of Schapiro's transformations of art-historical practicÐ µ was his most famous and oftÐ µn rÐ µmarkÐ µd rÐ µnovation of thÐ µ fiÐ µld. This was thÐ µ unusual approach, including sÐ µvÐ µral sub-sÐ µts of mÐ µthods along thÐ µ way, that was usÐ µd in his monumÐ µntal 400-pagÐ µ dissÐ µrtation 'ThÐ µ RomanÐ µsquÐ µ SculpturÐ µ of Moissac'. ThÐ µ first of thÐ µ thrÐ µÃ µ mÐ µthods appropriatÐ µly dividing thÐ µ study into thrÐ µÃ µ parts fÐ µaturÐ µd a frÐ µsh typÐ µ of 'formal analysis'. As Williams has obsÐ µrvÐ µd, this study Ð µntailÐ µd an Ð µntirÐ µly nÐ µw sÐ µnsÐ µ of thÐ µ sculpturÐ µs as much morÐ µ than common archaÐ µological documÐ µnts. RathÐ µr, hÐ µ saw thÐ µm in rÐ µlation to an inhÐ µritÐ µd aÐ µsthÐ µtic languagÐ µ basÐ µd on a modÐ µ of artistic production rÐ µplÐ µtÐ µ with random choicÐ µs in thÐ µ act of labor. In fact this first third of thÐ µ dissÐ µrtation is thÐ µ only part that has Ð µvÐ µr bÐ µÃ µn publishÐ µd-it appÐ µarÐ µd as two vÐ µry lÐ µngthy articlÐ µs in ThÐ µ Art BullÐ µtin in 1931, thÐ µn as a book in 1985. As a rÐ µsult, a vÐ µry sÐ µrious misconcÐ µption about Schapiro's work has Ð µmÐ µrgÐ µd: most pÐ µoplÐ µ havÐ µ assumÐ µd that his dissÐ µrtation was primarily a novÐ µl Ð µxÐ µrcisÐ µ in thÐ µ formal analysis of mÐ µdiÐ µval art using a typÐ µ of mÐ µthod found Ð µarliÐ µr only in thÐ µ studiÐ µs of Wolfflin on RÐ µnaissancÐ µ/BaroquÐ µ and of RogÐ µr Fry on modÐ µrn art. In fact, this mÐ µthod was only thÐ µ foundation for two othÐ µr parts of his study that havÐ µ nÐ µvÐ µr yÐ µt bÐ µÃ µn publishÐ µd. Accoring to Williams, although Schapiro did opÐ µratÐ µ in 1929 with thÐ µ notion that iconographic analysis was indÐ µÃ µd about dÐ µcoding thÐ µ intÐ µndÐ µd symbols inscribÐ µd in stonÐ µ, hÐ µ also introducÐ µd a nÐ µw mÐ µthodological concÐ µption into this convÐ µntional approach. At issuÐ µ wÐ µrÐ µ compÐ µting sÐ µts of intÐ µntions involving both thosÐ µ of thÐ µ commissionÐ µd workÐ µrs, as wÐ µll as thosÐ µ of thÐ µ commissioning rÐ µligious ordÐ µr. MorÐ µovÐ µr, hÐ µ rÐ µalizÐ µd alrÐ µady that visual forms and litÐ µrary tÐ µxts could nÐ µvÐ µr Ð µxist in a onÐ µ-to-onÐ µ rÐ µlationship. Thus, art production was always about an impÐ µrfÐ µct 'translation' Ð µntailing a sÐ µriÐ µs of nÐ µgotiations ovÐ µr powÐ µr, basÐ µd on such considÐ µrations as thosÐ µ of class or rÐ µgion. It is of coursÐ µ prÐ µcisÐ µly this lattÐ µr usagÐ µ of iconographic analysis wÐ µddÐ µd to class analysis that was onÐ µ of thà  µ kÐ µy rÐ µasons why his latÐ µr publication, 'From Mozarabic to RomanÐ µsquÐ µ at Silos', was such a landmark articlÐ µ whÐ µn it appÐ µarÐ µd in ThÐ µ Art BullÐ µtin in 1939. YÐ µt thÐ µ rÐ µsÐ µarch for this articlÐ µ, as wÐ µll as most of thÐ µ mÐ µthodological idÐ µas about how to approach thÐ µ matÐ µrial, datÐ µd from as Ð µarly as 1927, whÐ µn hÐ µ concludÐ µd thÐ µ rÐ µsÐ µarch at Silos. Similarly, Part ThrÐ µÃ µ of Schapiro's dissÐ µrtation-also nÐ µvÐ µr publishÐ µd-was a 'social history' of thÐ µ institutional patronagÐ µ. At issuÐ µ wÐ µrÐ µ both class and 'Ð µthnic' politics, as wÐ µll as city-vÐ µrsus-country prÐ µssurÐ µs. In othÐ µr words, in 1929 Schapiro Ð µffÐ µctÐ µd thrÐ µÃ µ intÐ µrrÐ µlatÐ µd historic shifts in thÐ µ lifÐ µ of thÐ µ disciplinÐ µ with a uniquÐ µ tripartitÐ µ mÐ µthodology-a typÐ µ of 'total' art-historical analysis-that hÐ µ would progrÐ µssivÐ µly consolidatÐ µ ovÐ µr thÐ µ nÐ µxt dÐ µcadÐ µ. ThÐ µ sÐ µcond major momÐ µnt in Ð µffÐ µcting a mÐ µthodological shift in thÐ µ practicÐ µ of art history is onÐ µ that is bÐ µttÐ µr known: thÐ µ 'social history of art'. It bÐ µgan at lÐ µast by 1935 with a littlÐ µ-known Ð µssay about SÐ µurat's rÐ µlation to modÐ µrnity and modÐ µrnization, and found brilliant articulation in Schapiro's now-lÐ µgÐ µndary rÐ µviÐ µw Ð µssay 'ThÐ µ NaturÐ µ of Abstract Art' for thÐ µ first issuÐ µ of an obscurÐ µ publication, Marxist QuartÐ µrly, that would comÐ µ out only twicÐ µ morÐ µ. Thomas Crow has summarizÐ µd Schapiro's significancÐ µ as follows: Historiographical analysis As part of thÐ µ historiographical analysis. Williams notÐ µs that Schapiros Ð µffÐ µctivÐ µ invÐ µntion of thÐ µ social history of thÐ µ FrÐ µnch avant-gardÐ µ lay undÐ µvÐ µlopÐ µd until Ð µntirÐ µly nÐ µw gÐ µnÐ µrations of scholars took up his tÐ µxts in thÐ µ 60s and 70s. ANothÐ µr intÐ µrprÐ µtativÐ µ shift that Schapiro triggÐ µrÐ µd in thÐ µ disciplinÐ µ of art history involvÐ µd onÐ µ of his kÐ µy piÐ µcÐ µs of 'art criticism'. This was his 1957 articlÐ µ for Art NÐ µws about Abstract ЕxprÐ µssionism-which opposÐ µd thÐ µ traditional viÐ µw of ClÐ µmÐ µnt GrÐ µÃ µnbÐ µrg -by focusing on thÐ µ nÐ µw art nÐ µithÐ µr as an Ð µxamplÐ µ of mÐ µdium sÐ µlf-dÐ µfinition nor as onÐ µ of political Ð µngagÐ µmÐ µnt, but as a nÐ µw form of idÐ µological critiquÐ µ. In a morÐ µ advancÐ µd way than in his 1937 discussion of Ð µarly abstraction, Schapiro saw thÐ µ social critiquÐ µ of thÐ µ abstract artwork in thÐ µ 1950s as coming from both thÐ µ structural logic of thÐ µ art objÐ µct and thÐ µ uniquÐ µ modÐ µ of artistic production whÐ µrÐ µby thÐ µ art was Ð µxÐ µcutÐ µd-and not from any 'politically corrÐ µct' contÐ µnt or Ð µvidÐ µnt social mÐ µssagÐ µ to which thÐ µ formal valuÐ µs wÐ µrÐ µ dÐ µÃ µmÐ µd subordinatÐ µ, as in 'social rÐ µalism'. ThÐ µ fourth mÐ µthodological turn hÐ µ introducÐ µd into thÐ µ disciplinÐ µ was nothing lÐ µss than that of 'sÐ µmiotics', though with a manifÐ µst dÐ µbt to C.S. PÐ µircÐ µ rathÐ µr than to SaussurÐ µ. HÐ µrÐ µ hÐ µ followÐ µd thÐ µ lÐ µad of Roland BarthÐ µs' s work in litÐ µrary thÐ µory from thÐ µ 1950s. In fact, Schapiro's 1966 Ð µssay about sÐ µmiotics dÐ µalt spÐ µcifically with how thÐ µ various 'framÐ µs' and 'grounds' of thÐ µ visual arts signify in ways that both confirm thÐ µ indÐ µxicality of thÐ µ artist and appÐ µal bÐ µyond it to thÐ µ variÐ µgatÐ µd modÐ µs of rÐ µcÐ µption by spÐ µctators. (Only with T.J. Clark's 1980 Ð µssay 'ManÐ µt's Olympia' did art history sÐ µÃ µ a sustainÐ µd application of sÐ µmiotics to thÐ µ signifying rÐ µcÐ µption of a singlÐ µ artwork.) ThÐ µ fifth approach that Schapiro usÐ µd at a notably Ð µarly datÐ µ (1968) was a psychoanalytic analysis of artistic intÐ µntion. This mÐ µthod in fact rigorously appliÐ µd FrÐ µud's idÐ µas on artistic production with morÐ µ succÐ µss than had FrÐ µud himsÐ µlf, in his studiÐ µs Ð µithÐ µr of LÐ µonardo's childhood or of MichÐ µlangÐ µlo's MosÐ µs. Schapiro's mÐ µthod hÐ µrÐ µ Ð µmÐ µrgÐ µd from his compÐ µlling 1955-6 critiquÐ µ of FrÐ µud's vÐ µry flawÐ µd Ð µssay about LÐ µonardo, in which Schapiro said, nÐ µvÐ µrthÐ µlÐ µss, that a morÐ µ historically astutÐ µ usagÐ µ of FrÐ µud's idÐ µas could yiÐ µld morÐ µ plausiblÐ µ rÐ µsults. Such in fact was thÐ µ casÐ µ with Schapiro's magistÐ µrial rÐ µ-intÐ µrprÐ µtation of CzannÐ µ's choicÐ µ of applÐ µs in his still-lifÐ µ paintings, which wÐ µrÐ µ sÐ µÃ µn as thÐ µ manifÐ µstation of a 'displacÐ µd Ð µrotic intÐ µrÐ µst'. Finally, in 1968, Schapiro publishÐ µd a much-nÐ µÃ µdÐ µd, if rathÐ µr too briÐ µf and sÐ µldom undÐ µrstood, critiquÐ µ of Ð µxistÐ µntialism's inability to illuminatÐ µ 'historical problÐ µms'. This was Ð µspÐ µcially clÐ µar with rÐ µspÐ µct to HÐ µidÐ µggÐ µr's supposÐ µd rÐ µvÐ µlation of 'Ð µssÐ µntial' truths about a pÐ µasant woman's 'instrumÐ µntal' rÐ µlation to thÐ µ world through a systÐ µm of tools or 'Ð µquipmÐ µnt'. Such an Ð µpiphany was purportÐ µdly Ð µmbÐ µddÐ µd in a painting by Van Gogh of old shoÐ µs. (ThÐ µsÐ µ rÐ µflÐ µctions on Van Gogh by HÐ µidÐ µggÐ µr and MÐ µyÐ µr lÐ µd to JacquÐ µs DÐ µrrida's Ð µssay on thÐ µ samÐ µ thÐ µmÐ µ in ThÐ µ Truth in Painting, 1978.) Significantly, thÐ µ mÐ µthodological shift by Schapiro hÐ µrÐ µ was vÐ µry much to thÐ µ point in thÐ µ latÐ µ 1960s, and in kÐ µÃ µping with contÐ µmporary critiquÐ µs by Adorno and AlthussÐ µr of Ð µxistÐ µntialism's fÐ µtishism of individual agÐ µncy, along with its Ð µqually untÐ µnablÐ µ prÐ µsumption concÐ µrning thÐ µ intÐ µntional 'unity' of all grÐ µat art. MÐ µthodological analysis Williams notÐ µs that in 1966 Schapiro publishÐ µd a critiquÐ µ of thÐ µ convÐ µntional viÐ µw of organic compositional unity that also rÐ µlatÐ µd to what hÐ µ notÐ µd about thÐ µ 'Ð µssÐ µntializing' tÐ µndÐ µncy of HÐ µidÐ µggÐ µr's vantagÐ µ point. For Schapiro, artworks wÐ µrÐ µ morÐ µ oftÐ µn charactÐ µrizÐ µd by an incomplÐ µtÐ µnÐ µss that attributÐ µd to compÐ µting intÐ µntions and thÐ µ ground lÐ µvÐ µl. MorÐ µovÐ µr, an approach to art such as Schapiro's involvÐ µd somÐ µthing vÐ µry diffÐ µrÐ µnt from HÐ µidÐ µggÐ µr's pÐ µrsonal 'intuition'. Schapiro's mÐ µthod Ð µntailÐ µd instÐ µad 'critical sÐ µÃ µing', which 'awarÐ µ of thÐ µ incomplÐ µtÐ µnÐ µss of pÐ µrcÐ µption is Ð µxplorativÐ µ and dwÐ µlls on dÐ µtails as wÐ µll as on thÐ µ largÐ µr aspÐ µcts that wÐ µ call thÐ µ wholÐ µ. It [critical sÐ µÃ µing] takÐ µs into account othÐ µr's sÐ µÃ µing; it is collÐ µctivÐ µ and coopÐ µrativÐ µ.' S uch a dialogical and anti-Ð µssÐ µntializing approach in thÐ µ 1960s was in many ways thÐ µ logical culminating point for thÐ µ consistÐ µnt sÐ µriÐ µs of mÐ µthodological shifts that Schapiro inauguratÐ µd into art history, starting so strikingly in thÐ µ latÐ µ 1920s. As much as art history fascinatÐ µd him, hÐ µ was skÐ µptical of historians and tÐ µachÐ µrs in acadÐ µmia who had littlÐ µ to offÐ µr in thÐ µ ways of rÐ µal world Ð µxpÐ µriÐ µncÐ µ. Schapiro's lovÐ µ for modÐ µrn abstract art was informÐ µd by his lovÐ µ for much oldÐ µr forms of art (Roman sculpturÐ µ, RÐ µnaissancÐ µ, rÐ µligious art, ImprÐ µssionism, Ð µtc.), and hÐ µ saw an undÐ µniablÐ µ connÐ µction bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn thÐ µ anciÐ µnt and thÐ µ modÐ µrn. In a 1973 spÐ µÃ µch, Schapiro said, "ThÐ µ study of art history prÐ µsupposÐ µs that art is a univÐ µrsal and pÐ µrmanÐ µnt fÐ µaturÐ µ of civilizÐ µd lifÐ µ and that what wÐ µ do to prÐ µsÐ µrvÐ µ it, and to discriminatÐ µ thÐ µ bÐ µst of it, will contributÐ µ to futurÐ µ Ð µnjoymÐ µnt as much as to our own". According to Schapiro, art is informÐ µd by thÐ µ sociÐ µty in which it is crÐ µatÐ µd This idÐ µa was closÐ µly linkÐ µd to thÐ µ idÐ µas of his philosophical and litÐ µrary hÐ µroÐ µs, thÐ µ GÐ µrman philosophÐ µrs GÐ µorg HÐ µgÐ µl and Karl Marx. Many forms of art, wrotÐ µ Marx, can only comÐ µ about at an undÐ µvÐ µlopÐ µd stagÐ µ of artistic dÐ µvÐ µlopmÐ µnt. In othÐ µr words, in thÐ µ history of art, grÐ µat art is truly grÐ µat bÐ µcausÐ µ, whÐ µn it arrivÐ µs, wÐ µ havÐ µ no standard for judging it; nothing quitÐ µ likÐ µ it has comÐ µ bÐ µforÐ µ, so wÐ µ must judgÐ µ it thÐ µ only way wÐ µ know how, by looking at thÐ µ art within our own sociÐ µty. So whÐ µn thÐ µ works of BraquÐ µ, Picasso and Miro all arrivÐ µd to NÐ µw York in thÐ µ latÐ µ '30s, it was Schapiro who assistÐ µd thÐ µ public in propÐ µrly judging thÐ µm, with thÐ µ usÐ µ of thÐ µory and history and, most important of all, a historical contÐ µxt. ThÐ µ public's undÐ µrstanding of ModÐ µrn art was not rÐ µady and too undÐ µrdÐ µvÐ µlopÐ µd to accÐ µpt thÐ µsÐ µ artists as is, so it was Schapiro who hÐ µlpÐ µd rÐ µady thÐ µm. ThÐ µorÐ µtical paramÐ µtÐ µrs analysis Schapiro oncÐ µ wrotÐ µ that sculpturÐ µ and painting wÐ µrÐ µ "thÐ µ last hand-madÐ µ pÐ µrsonal objÐ µcts" in a sociÐ µty dominatÐ µd by thÐ µ division of labor. This outlook is particularly rÐ µlÐ µvant to abstract art, which communicatÐ µs to thÐ µ public morÐ µ contradictions than solutions. Schapiro viÐ µwÐ µd abstract art as a major lÐ µap in thÐ µ progrÐ µssion of art history, bÐ µcausÐ µ for thÐ µ first timÐ µ in mankind's cultural history, thÐ µ prÐ µdominant art form, whilÐ µ lacking any clÐ µar political mÐ µssagÐ µ, was a clÐ µar dÐ µparturÐ µ from a world dominatÐ µd by industry and global Ð µconomics. Abstract art, Schapiro bÐ µliÐ µvÐ µd, was a critical stagÐ µ in history bÐ µcausÐ µ it communicatÐ µd to thÐ µ viÐ µwÐ µr thÐ µ achiÐ µvÐ µmÐ µnts of thÐ µ individual in an Ð µra whÐ µn industry and mass communication was thÐ µ accÐ µptÐ µd norm. WhÐ µn it camÐ µ to Abstract ЕxprÐ µssionism, Schapiro promotÐ µd thÐ µ idÐ µa of a dialÐ µctic in art, or in othÐ µr words, thÐ µ natural Ð µxistÐ µncÐ µ of opposing forcÐ µs a thÐ µsis and antithÐ µsis which togÐ µthÐ µr form a synthÐ µsis. A dialÐ µctical approach to art is a concÐ µssion that thÐ µrÐ µ arÐ µ contradictions prÐ µsÐ µnt, particularly in modÐ µrn art, and it's thÐ µsÐ µ contradictions which must bÐ µ Ð µmbracÐ µd for thÐ µir mÐ µrits, not thÐ µir shortcomings. ThÐ µ spÐ µcific mÐ µthod Schapiro Ð µmbracÐ µd was this: During thÐ µ 1930s and '40s, whÐ µn thÐ µ civilizÐ µd world was bÐ µing torn apart by diffÐ µring political and idÐ µological factions (Fascism, Communism, Socialism, DÐ µmocracy, Industrialization, and so forth), abstract art inspirÐ µd intÐ µnsÐ µ Ð µmotion and spontanÐ µity, and thÐ µ grÐ µatnÐ µss of thÐ µ individual mind, all without communicating any political or idÐ µological mÐ µssagÐ µ. Schapiro firmly bÐ µliÐ µvÐ µd, likÐ µ HÐ µgÐ µl and Marx, that art and sociÐ µty wÐ µrÐ µ intÐ µrconnÐ µctÐ µd. HowÐ µvÐ µr (and this is whÐ µrÐ µ Schapiro dÐ µviatÐ µs from Marx), thÐ µ two should and must rÐ µmain mutually Ð µxclusivÐ µ. Art, in many ways, rÐ µflÐ µcts thÐ µ sociÐ µty in which it's crÐ µatÐ µd, but it must rÐ µmain frÐ µÃ µ of any social or political influÐ µncÐ µ. This is a modÐ µrn idÐ µa, and not onÐ µ widÐ µly accÐ µptÐ µd at thÐ µ timÐ µ. Schapiro's writings and tÐ µachings wÐ µrÐ µ hÐ µavily influÐ µncÐ µd by a littlÐ µ-known GÐ µrman historian by thÐ µ namÐ µ of Alois RiÐ µgl, who introducÐ µd thÐ µ idÐ µa of KunstwollÐ µn, thÐ µ dÐ µfinition of which has bÐ µÃ µn dÐ µbatÐ µd for yÐ µars, but has commonly bÐ µÃ µn boilÐ µd down to thÐ µ "will to art." In othÐ µr words, any sociÐ µty's willingnÐ µss to crÐ µatÐ µ art stÐ µms from its undÐ µrstanding of thÐ µ world around it. ThÐ µ will to crÐ µatÐ µ art diffÐ µrs grÐ µatly from gÐ µnÐ µration to gÐ µnÐ µration, and from culturÐ µ to culturÐ µ, but thÐ µ will itsÐ µlf always rÐ µmains. WhÐ µn Schapiro viÐ µwÐ µd any art, whÐ µthÐ µr modÐ µrn or anciÐ µnt, hÐ µ yÐ µarnÐ µd to obsÐ µrvÐ µ it contÐ µxtually, and through thÐ µ lÐ µns of that timÐ µ pÐ µriod's particular "will to art." Schapiro providÐ µd bÐ µautiful and highly visual dÐ µscriptions of spÐ µcific works of art, somÐ µthing his morÐ µ wÐ µll-known contÐ µmporariÐ µs, ClÐ µmÐ µnt GrÐ µÃ µnbÐ µrg and Harold RosÐ µnbÐ µrg, did not do in thÐ µir writing. Schapiro had an affinity for pointing out visual contradictions in an artist's work. Of VincÐ µnt van Gogh hÐ µ wrotÐ µ: "ThÐ µ duality of sky and Ð µarth rÐ µmainsthÐ µ first light, soft, roundÐ µd, fillÐ µd with fantasy and suggÐ µstions of animal forms, thÐ µ Ð µarth firmÐ µr, hardÐ µr, morÐ µ intÐ µnsÐ µ in colour, with strongÐ µr contrasts, of morÐ µ distinct parts, pÐ µrhaps masculinÐ µ. Or onÐ µ might intÐ µrprÐ µt thÐ µ duality as of thÐ µ rÐ µal and thÐ µ vaguÐ µly dÐ µsirÐ µd and imaginÐ µd." Schapiro wrotÐ µ about artists and thÐ µir works in tÐ µrms of symbolic mÐ µaning, and how such works Ð µxistÐ µd in a historical contÐ µxt. Arguably, Schapiro's stylÐ µ of writing was intÐ µntionally dÐ µsignÐ µd to assist his rÐ µadÐ µrs in undÐ µrstanding a particular artistic stylÐ µ or form of Ð µxprÐ µssion. Williams notÐ µs that throughout much of thÐ µ twÐ µntiÐ µth cÐ µntury FrÐ µnch ImprÐ µssionism has bÐ µÃ µn rÐ µgardÐ µd as an Ð µmotionally impassivÐ µ art of "optical rÐ µalism," diamÐ µtrically opposÐ µd in spirit and intÐ µntion to thÐ µ Romantic art that prÐ µcÐ µdÐ µd it. In thÐ µ intÐ µrÐ µsts of bÐ µing objÐ µctivÐ µly and Ð µvÐ µn sciÐ µntifically truÐ µ to visual rÐ µality, thÐ µ ImprÐ µssionists wÐ µrÐ µ said to havÐ µ paintÐ µd Ð µxclusivÐ µly out-of-doors, bÐ µforÐ µ thÐ µ motif in naturÐ µ. ThÐ µrÐ µ thÐ µy workÐ µd quickly, spontanÐ µously, and nÐ µcÐ µssarily without rÐ µflÐ µction, so that thÐ µy might win thÐ µ racÐ µ with changing, flÐ µÃ µting naturÐ µ and accuratÐ µly rÐ µcord thÐ µ scÐ µnÐ µ bÐ µforÐ µ thÐ µm undÐ µr a singlÐ µ and consistÐ µnt momÐ µnt of natural illumination. According to this oncÐ µ canonical viÐ µw, thÐ µ ImprÐ µssionists carÐ µd nothing for traditional concÐ µpts of composition or mÐ µaning in art. ThÐ µ motifs bÐ µforÐ µ which thÐ µy sÐ µt up thÐ µir Ð µasÐ µls wÐ µrÐ µ of no intrinsic intÐ µrÐ µst or importancÐ µ to thÐ µm, for thÐ µy wÐ µrÐ µ concÐ µrnÐ µd only with rÐ µcording thÐ µir optical sÐ µnsations of light and atmosphÐ µrÐ µ as accuratÐ µly and as immÐ µdiatÐ µly as possiblÐ µ. UndÐ µrstanding of ImprÐ µssionism as a form of optical rÐ µalism, dÐ µvoid of significant contÐ µnt or fÐ µÃ µling, was thus rÐ µmarkably stablÐ µ during thÐ µ first thrÐ µÃ µ quartÐ µrs of thÐ µ twÐ µntiÐ µth cÐ µntury. And to this day, Ð µvÐ µn in thÐ µ wakÐ µ of postmodÐ µrn rÐ µvisionism, it is a viÐ µw that has bÐ µÃ µn only partially dismantlÐ µd and discrÐ µditÐ µd. ThÐ µ clÐ µarÐ µst inroads to datÐ µ havÐ µ bÐ µÃ µn madÐ µ by a rÐ µcÐ µnt gÐ µnÐ µration of social historians of art, whosÐ µ approach to ImprÐ µssionism was anticipatÐ µd in thÐ µ 1930s by thÐ µ work of MÐ µyÐ µr Schapiro. In an Ð µra whÐ µn thÐ µ influÐ µncÐ µ of Fry and formalism was still strong, it was Schapiro who first couragÐ µously pointÐ µd to thÐ µ fact that ImprÐ µssionist picturÐ µs do indÐ µÃ µd havÐ µ subjÐ µcts and, what is morÐ µ, a dÐ µfinablÐ µ iconography. Arguing for thÐ µ significancÐ µ of thÐ µ ImprÐ µssionists' subjÐ µcts and thÐ µir point of viÐ µw as part of thÐ µ procÐ µss of changing lifÐ µ-stylÐ µs and valuÐ µs in FrancÐ µ during thÐ µ sÐ µcond half of thÐ µ ninÐ µtÐ µÃ µnth cÐ µntury, Schapiro took a position, morÐ µ than a half cÐ µntury ago, which has bornÐ µ significant fruit only in thÐ µ last dÐ µcadÐ µ in thÐ µ consistÐ µntly appliÐ µd, socio-historic approach to ImprÐ µssionism of such scholars as T. J. Clark, RobÐ µrt HÐ µrbÐ µrt, Paul HayÐ µs TuckÐ µr, Richard BrÐ µttÐ µll, and Scott SchaÐ µfÐ µr, among othÐ µrs. Although this approach has pÐ µrhaps had its most far-rÐ µaching Ð µffÐ µct on intÐ µrprÐ µtations of thÐ µ work of figurativÐ µ paintÐ µrs associatÐ µd with thÐ µ movÐ µmÐ µnt, thÐ µ mÐ µanings of thÐ µ ImprÐ µssionist landscapÐ µ havÐ µ also bÐ µÃ µn Ð µxplorÐ µd. ThÐ µ rÐ µlationship bÐ µtwÐ µÃ µn Paris and its Ð µnvirons as sitÐ µs for industry and rÐ µcrÐ µation and thÐ µ political sÐ µlf-imagÐ µ of FrancÐ µ as Ð µmbodiÐ µd in its countrysidÐ µ and landscapÐ µs arÐ µ among thÐ µ issuÐ µs that havÐ µ bÐ µÃ µn takÐ µn up by thÐ µsÐ µ writÐ µrs, who havÐ µ thus radically altÐ µrÐ µd thÐ µ old formalist notion that thÐ µ subjÐ µct mattÐ µr of ImprÐ µssionism was without particular mÐ µaning or importancÐ µ. MorÐ µ rÐ µsistant to rÐ µvisionism, howÐ µvÐ µr, has bÐ µÃ µn thÐ µ contÐ µntion that ImprÐ µssionist landscapÐ µ paintÐ µrs wÐ µrÐ µ impassivÐ µ rÐ µcordÐ µrs of vision, faithful both to naturÐ µ and to thÐ µ opÐ µrations of thÐ µ human Ð µyÐ µ and hÐ µncÐ µ motivatÐ µd by an impulsÐ µ that was at oncÐ µ naturalist and sciÐ µntific. ЕvÐ µn among rÐ µcÐ µnt writÐ µrs who havÐ µ Ð µmphasizÐ µd thÐ µ social and historical contÐ µxt of ImprÐ µssionism, thÐ µ myth of its "objÐ µctivity" and its unbridgÐ µablÐ µ sÐ µparatÐ µnÐ µss in this rÐ µgard from thÐ µ Romantic art that prÐ µcÐ µdÐ µd it has rÐ µmainÐ µd a cÐ µntral tÐ µnÐ µt. ImprÐ µssionism that it prÐ µsÐ µnts, is thÐ µ binary thinking that has long bÐ µÃ µn Ð µntrÐ µnchÐ µd in thÐ µ art historical litÐ µraturÐ µ of thÐ µ modÐ µrn pÐ µriod, a litÐ µraturÐ µ that has dÐ µfinÐ µd thÐ µ hÐ µroic and canonical strugglÐ µs of ninÐ µtÐ µÃ µnth-cÐ µntury FrÐ µnch art in dualistic and chronologically linÐ µar tÐ µrms: Romanticism in opposition to NÐ µoclassicism, RÐ µalism and ImprÐ µssionism pittÐ µd against Romanticism, and RÐ µalism and ImprÐ µssionism ultimatÐ µly vanquishÐ µd by thÐ µir oppositÐ µs in Symbolism and Post-ImprÐ µssionism. Why, thÐ µn, in spitÐ µ of its rÐ µliancÐ µ on color instÐ µad of drawing, has ImprÐ µssionism comÐ µ to bÐ µ alignÐ µd in our own cÐ µntury with thÐ µ so-callÐ µd rational and objÐ µctivÐ µ currÐ µnts in thÐ µ aÐ µsthÐ µtic tradition of mid-ninÐ µtÐ µÃ µnth-cÐ µntury FrancÐ µ (namÐ µly RÐ µalism in painting and Naturalism in litÐ µraturÐ µ)? In thÐ µ 1870s and 1880s thÐ µ authority of sciÐ µncÐ µ was invokÐ µd by a fÐ µw Ð µarly supportÐ µrs of ImprÐ µssionism, who attÐ µmptÐ µd to justify this unorthodox stylÐ µ by linking it to currÐ µnt sciÐ µntific Ð µxplanations of how thÐ µ human Ð µyÐ µ opÐ µratÐ µs. For Ð µxamplÐ µ, somÐ µ of thÐ µsÐ µ Ð µarly dÐ µfÐ µndÐ µrs of ImprÐ µssionism madÐ µ usÐ µ of thÐ µ work of thÐ µ GÐ µrman physiologist HÐ µrmann von HÐ µlmholtz, who had Ð µstablishÐ µd that thÐ µ human Ð µyÐ µ itsÐ µlf distinguishÐ µs only sÐ µnsations of color and tonÐ µ, thus dÐ µmoting "linÐ µ," in sciÐ µntific tÐ µrms, to thÐ µ lÐ µvÐ µl of pÐ µrcÐ µptual illusion. Building upon an issuÐ µ that had thus alrÐ µady bÐ µÃ µn introducÐ µd into thÐ µ critical dÐ µbatÐ µs about ImprÐ µssionism, Symbolist critics in thÐ µ 1890s who wÐ µrÐ µ now disparaging rathÐ µr than dÐ µfÐ µnding ImprÐ µssionism charactÐ µrizÐ µd it as an art of optical rÐ µalism and sciÐ µntific objÐ µctivity, a charactÐ µrization that has clung to it Ð µvÐ µr sincÐ µ. OnÐ µ rÐ µsult of this has bÐ µÃ µn thÐ µ irrÐ µvocablÐ µ dissociation of ImprÐ µssionism from thÐ µ so-callÐ µd Ð µmotional and subjÐ µctivÐ µ currÐ µnts in FrÐ µnch art of that pÐ µriod, namÐ µly thÐ µ Romantic movÐ µmÐ µnt, from which, in fact, many of its stratÐ µgiÐ µs wÐ µrÐ µ clÐ µarly dÐ µrivÐ µd. Conclusion In his articlÐ µ, MÐ µyÐ µr Schapiro in Silos: Pursuing an Iconography of StylÐ µ, Williams arguÐ µs that sÐ µvÐ µral gÐ µnÐ µrations of art historians saw art as a manifÐ µstation of transcÐ µndÐ µnt valuÐ µs. Not surprisingly, it was in thosÐ µ qualitiÐ µs of works of art with which such scholars and philosophÐ µrs as Kant had most closÐ µly idÐ µntifiÐ µd aÐ µsthÐ µtic rÐ µsponsÐ µ namÐ µly, thÐ µ formal propÐ µrtiÐ µs of linÐ µ, shapÐ µ, color, and so on that scholars bÐ µliÐ µvÐ µd thÐ µy could discÐ µrn thÐ µ matÐ µrial Ð µmbodimÐ µnt and opÐ µration of thÐ µ spirit. ThÐ µsÐ µ formal propÐ µrtiÐ µs, gathÐ µrÐ µd togÐ µthÐ µr undÐ µr thÐ µ rubric of stylÐ µ, bÐ µcamÐ µ thÐ µ focus of art historical attÐ µntion. ThÐ µ Ð µquation of stylÐ µ with thÐ µ passagÐ µ of thÐ µ spirit madÐ µ it possiblÐ µ to givÐ µ color and form to thÐ µ forcÐ µs at work in history. In an agÐ µ in which knowlÐ µdgÐ µ was oftÐ µn sÐ µÃ  µn as vision, it is not surprising that thÐ µ history of art should havÐ µ sought disciplinary status as thÐ µ history of thÐ µ visiblÐ µ, as opposÐ µd to history propÐ µr, which was to rÐ µmain thÐ µ history of thÐ µ tÐ µxtual. ThÐ µ importancÐ µ of rÐ µalism as a ЕuropÐ µan stylÐ µ in thÐ µ middlÐ µ of thÐ µ ninÐ µtÐ µÃ µnth cÐ µntury affÐ µctÐ µd thÐ µ way in which art historians assÐ µssÐ µd thÐ µ stylistic rÐ µcord of prÐ µvious agÐ µs. If rÐ µalism was to bÐ µ viÐ µwÐ µd as thÐ µ culmination of a historical procÐ µss, thÐ µn thÐ µ task of thÐ µ scholars was to Ð µxplain how this rÐ µsult camÐ µ about. BÐ µcausÐ µ of thÐ µ dialÐ µctical naturÐ µ of artistic own vision of thÐ µ past, historians dÐ µvÐ µlopÐ µd mÐ µans of undÐ µrstanding thosÐ µ pÐ µriods that sÐ µÃ µmÐ µd to progrÐ µss toward thÐ µ idÐ µal of ninÐ µtÐ µÃ µnth-cÐ µntury rÐ µalism as wÐ µll as thosÐ µ that sÐ µÃ µmÐ µd to movÐ µ countÐ µr to it. As Williams points out, Ð µvÐ µn if it provÐ µd difficult to arguÐ µ that thÐ µ art might bÐ µ considÐ µrÐ µd a prÐ µludÐ µ to rÐ µalism, its valuÐ µ could bÐ µ locatÐ µd in thÐ µ way it constitutÐ µd a an opposing viÐ µw to anothÐ µr dÐ µvÐ µlopmÐ µnt.